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THE MYTHOLOGY OF ALL RACES
Volume II
EDDIC
Volume I, Greek and Roman William Sherwood Fox, Ph.D., University of Western Ontario.
1 Volume II. Eddie
Canon John A. MacCulloch, D.D., Bridge of Allan, Scotland.
Volume III. Celtic , Slavic Canon John A. MacCulloch, D.D., Bridge of Allan, Scotland. Jan Machal, Ph.D., Bohemian University.
Volume IV. Finno-Ugric, Siberian Uno Holmberg, Ph.D., Turku University.
Volume V. Semitic
Stephen H. Langdon, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., Oxford University.
Volume VI. Indian, Iranian A. Berriedale Keith, D.C.L., Edinburgh University. Albert J. Carnoy, Ph.D., University of Louvain.
Volume VII. Armenian, African
Mardiros Ananikian, B.D., Kennedy School of Missions. Alice Werner, L.L.A. (St. Andrews), School of Oriental Studies.
Volume VIII. Chinese, Japanese John P. Ferguson, Ph.D., Pekin, China.
Masaharu Anesaki, Litt.D., University of Tokyo.
Volume IX. Oceanic
Roland Burrage Dixon, Ph.D., Harvard University.
Volume X. North American Hartley Burr Alexander, Ph.D., Scripps College.
Volume XI. American {Latin)
Hartley Burr Alexander, Ph.D., Scripps College.
Volume XII. Egypt, Far East
W. Max Muller, Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania.
Sir (James) George Scott, K.C.I.E., London.
Volume XIII. Index
Louis Herbert Gray, A.M., Ph.D., Columbia University.
PLATE I
Wayland Smith's Cave or Forge
Wayland Smith is the Volund of the Eddie poem V olundarkvitha. The Volund story had its origin among the Saxon tribes, but spread all over the Teu¬ tonic area. It was known to the Anglo-Saxons, and c Welandes Smiththan 5 is mentioned in a document dating from a few years before the Norman Conquest. The name had been given to the remains of a cham¬ bered tumulus or ‘ Long Barrow ’ (or, as some re¬ gard it, a chambered dolmen) at Ashbury, Berkshire. For the legend connected with this, see p. 271, and Sir W. Scott’s Kenilworth > chapter xiii and note 2. The Anglo-Saxon poem, Deor*s Lament , refers to the Volund story, and in a document of the year 903 a.d. mention is made of a place in Buckingham¬ shire called ‘ Welandes Stocc.’ The phrase ‘ Welan¬ des geweorc ’ was also used by the Anglo-Saxons to denote weapons and ornaments of exceptional value.
THE MYTHOLOGY OF ALL RACES
IN THIRTEEN VOLUMES
CANON JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH, D.D, Editor
GEORGE FOOT MOORE, A.M., D.D., LL.D., Consulting Editor
eddic
BY
JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH
HON. D.D., ST. ANDREWS
VOLUME II
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA MARSHALL JONES COMPANY • BOSTON M DCCCC XXX
Copyright, 1930 By Marshall Jones Company
Copyrighted in Great Britain
All rights reserved
Printed February 1930
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY THE PLIMPTON PRESS • NORWOOD • MASSACHUSETTS
MW
TO MY WIFE
721642
CONTENTS
PAGE
Author’s Preface . xi
Introduction . 3
Chapter I The Gods: A General Survey . 15
II The Vanir . 25
III Euhemerism . 31
IV The Greater Gods — Odin . 37
V The Greater Gods — Thor . 68
VI The Greater Gods — Tyr . 97
VII The Vanir Group — Njord . 10 1
VIII The Vanir Group — Frey . 108
IX The Vanir Group — Freyja . 120
X Balder . . . 127
XI Loki . 139
XII Lesser Gods . 151
XIII Mimir . 167
XIV Algir . 171
XV Frigg . 174.
XVI Lesser Goddesses . 178
XVII Ran . 190
XVIII Nature . 192
XIX Animals . 216
XX The Alfar or Elves . 219
XXI V ALTTIR . 228
XXII The Fylgja . 233
XXIII The Norns . 238
XXIV Valkyries . 248
CONTENTS
PAGE
Chapter XXV Swan-maidens . 258
XXVI Dwarfs . 264
XXVII Giants . . . ' . 275
XXVIII Trolls . 285
XXIX The Nightmare Spirit . 288
XXX Werwolves . 291
XXXI Magic . 295
XXXII The Other World . 303
XXXIII Cosmogony and the Doom of the Gods . 324
Notes . 349
Bibliography . 387
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE FACING PAGE
I Wayland Smith’s Cave — Coloured . . . Frontispiece
II Borg in Iceland . 4
III The Three Odins and Gangleri . 12
IV The Golden Horns . 16
V Details of the Larger Horn . 22
VI Details of the Smaller Horn . 32
VII Odin . 46
VIII Swedish Grave-stone . 60
IX Representations of Thor . 68
X Thor and the Midgard-serpent . 76
XI Thor’s Hammer Amulets . 84
XII Altar to Mars Thingsus . 98
XIII Scenes from the Larger Golden Horn . 106
XIV Frey . 114
XV Ancient Wagon . 122
XVI The Oseberg Ship . 130
XVII Sculptured Stone from Gotland . 138
XVIII Loki and Sigyn . 146
XIX Heimdall . 152
XX Bronze Trumpet . 160
XXI Vidarr . 168
XXII Images and Grave-plate . 176
XXIII Icelandic Temple . 184
XXIV Sun Symbols . 196
XXV Sun Carriage . 198
XXVI Sun Symbol . 200
XXVII Rock-carvings and Bronze Razors . 204
XXVIII Sea-giantess . 210
XXIX Wolf-headed Monster . 218
XXX Carved Post from the Oseberg Ship . 230
XXXI Runic Stone and Gundestrupp Silver Bowl .... 238
XXXII The Gundestrupp Bowl . 246
XXXIII Ritual Vessel on Wheels . 254
IX
X
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE FACING PAGE
XXXIV The Franks’ Casket . 266
XXXV The Franks’ Casket . 272
XXXVI Runic Monument with Troll- wife . 286
XXXVII Spear-head, Sword, and Bear’s Tooth . 296
XXXVIII Entrance to a Giant’s Chamber — Coloured . . . 306
XXXIX Bronze Age Barrow . . 310
XL Helga-fell and Sacred Birch-tree . 316
XLI Holy Well and Royal Barrows . 320
XLII The Bewcastle Cross . 324
XLIII Detailed Carving on the Bewcastle Cross .... 326
XLIV The Ruthwell Cross . 332
XLV The Dearham Cross . 336
XL VI Magic Symbols: Detail from the Smaller Golden
Horn . 338
XLVII Anglo-Saxon Draughtsmen . 346
PREFACE
WHEN this Series was first projected, Professor Axel Olrik, Ph. D., of the University of Copenhagen, was asked to write the volume on Eddie Mythology, and no one more competent than he could have been chosen. He agreed to undertake the work, but his lamented death occurred before he had done more than sketch a plan and write a small part of it.
Ultimately it was decided that I should write the volume, and the result is now before the reader.
Throughout the book, the names of gods, heroes, and places are generally given without accents, which are meaningless to most readers, and the spelling of such names is mainly that which accords most nearly with the Old Norse pronunciation. ‘ Odin,5 however, is preferred to the less usual c Othin,’ and so with a few other familiar names, the spelling of which is now stereotyped in English.
Several of the illustrations are from material which had been collected by Professor Olrik, with which the publisher supplied me. The coloured illustrations and those in pen and ink draw¬ ing are by my daughter. I have to thank the authorities of the British Museum for permission to use their photographs of the Franks’ Casket and of Anglo-Saxon draughtsmen 5 the Director of the Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo, for photographs of the Oseberg Ship 5 Mr. W. G. Collingwood, F.S.A., for per¬ mission to reproduce his sketches of Borg and Helga-fell} and Professor G. Baldwin Brown, LL.D., of the Chair of Fine Art, University of Edinburgh, for photographs of the Dearham, Bewcastle, and Ruthwell Crosses.
J. A. MacCULLOCH
The Bridge of Allan Scotland October 8, 1929
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
BY
JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH
INTRODUCTION
THE Teutonic peoples in the early centuries of our era were found over a considerable part of central Europe, north of the Rhine and the Danube. They also stretched farther northwards and had occupied Denmark and a great part of the Scandinavian peninsula from prehistoric times. In the fifth century began those movements of the Teutonic tribes which led to their occupation of the Roman empire. Ethnology divides the Teutons into three groups — the High Germans in middle and upper Germany, Switzerland, and Austria ; the Low Germans, including the North Germans, Flemings, Dutch, Frisians, and Anglo-Saxons ; and the Scandinavians of Den¬ mark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland.
The religious beliefs of this widespread people are known to us imperfectly, and while all of them must have had a common religious heritage, one of the chief problems of religion and mythology is to decide how far all the various tribes had the same deities, the same beliefs and customs, the same myths. Very different views are advocated as solutions of this problem. What is known from classical observers regarding Teutonic reli¬ gion, from archaeological remains, from notices in the lives and writings of Christian missionaries, from survivals in folk- custom and folk-belief, from ecclesiastical laws, is of the high¬ est importance. From these sources we gather that, on many matters, there was much similarity of belief and practice, but there are many others on which it is impossible to come to a definite conclusion.
While we may speak within limits of Teutonic mythology, strict exactitude should rather speak of Eddie mythology — the myths found in the Eddas> for detailed myths can hardly be
4
INTRODUCTION
said to have survived elsewhere. These myths belong to Ice¬ land and Norway, possibly also to Sweden and Denmark. How far any of them belonged to other branches of the Teutonic people is a matter of conjecture. Here and there we have cer¬ tain lines of evidence which suggest a common heritage of myth. Certain myths, however, belong solely to the Scandinavian regions where the Eddie material was native, just as do also the beliefs in certain gods and goddesses.
The purpose of this book is to give an account of Eddie mythology, showing wherever possible its connexions with that of other branches of the Teutonic stock.
What, then, are the Eddasy and where and when were they composed?
According to one manuscript of a work composed by Snorri Sturluson (1178—1241), which came into possession of Bryn- jolf Sveinsson, bishop of Skalholt in the seventeenth century, the work itself is called ‘ Eddad It deals, as we shall see, with Norse mythology. Sveinsson was also owner of a manuscript containing poems, many of which were cited by Snorri and used by him in compiling his work. From this connexion these poems now came to be called Edda or £ the Elder Edda* in distinction from the prose work which was styled £ the Y ounger Edda d The collection of poems was also called Scemundar Edday from the belief that they were the work of Sasmund the Wise, an Icelandic priest and collector of old poetry, who lived in the second half of the eleventh century and died in 1133 a.d. It is now generally known as £ the Poetic Eddad
Different derivations of the word Edda have been suggested. By many scholars it is now conceded that the word is the genitive of £ Oddiy the name of a homestead in Iceland, which was a seat of learning, and where Snorri was educated and lived for many years, and where Ssemund had also dwelt for some time, if tradition speaks true. Hence Snorri’s book would be £ of Oddi’ or £ the book of Oddi.’ Another derivation much favoured is that Edda is from opr , £ song,’ £ poem,’ and that
.
PLATE II Borg in Iceland
Borg, Iceland, the home of the poet Egil Skalla- grimsson and of Snorri Sturluson, author of the Prose Edda (see p. 4). The farm of the same name is in the centre of the picture. In the foreground is the family tomb, partly destroyed, where Egil in his poem saw Hel stand and wait his coming. From W. G. Collingwood’s Sagasteads of Iceland .
INTRODUCTION
5
the title, as given to Snorri’s work, signified its contents and their purpose, viz., £ Poetics ’ or £ treatise of Poetics.’
Snorri Sturluson was one of the most learned men of his time — a historian, a lover of poetry, of antiquities, of the tradi¬ tions of the past, an able and gifted writer. His position in Ice¬ land was one of great influence, and eventually he became chief judge and president of the legislative assembly there. He wrote or composed the Heims kringla — a series of sagas or stories of the lives of the kings of Norway down to 1177. The first part of the work, the Ynglinga-sagay is based on the old poem Ynglinga-taly and shows how Odin and other deities were kings and chiefs, and how the Norwegian kings were descended from the Ynglings at Upsala. Snorri’s Edda is justly styled £ a manual of Poetics.’ There had developed in the North not only special rules for the composition of poetry but a special poetic language. In the latter innumerable periphrases or £ kennings ’ ( kenningur ) had come into use, and without them poetry was now little thought of. Fortunately the poems of the Poetic Edda are remarkably free of such kennings, and in many other ways differ from the poetry of the skalds or court poets. The following examples of kennings may be given — battle was £ storm of Odin ’ ; a ship was £ steed of the billows the earth was £ flesh of Ymir ’5 gold was £ Sif’s hair.’ Thousands of such kennings, many of them even more elaborate than these, and mostly based on the old pagan mythology, were in use in the composition of verse. Obviously a knowledge of kennings demanded much study and implied a wide acquaintance with mythology. To give to young poets a full account of the old myths and to illustrate the kennings enumerated from the verses of other skalds, was Snorri’s purpose in compiling his IE dda.
It consists of three parts. The first of these, Gylf a ginning , £ Beguiling of Gylfi,’ is a methodical account of the old gods and goddesses, the myths in which some of them figure, the cosmog¬ ony, and the final Doom of the gods. It is written with much
6
INTRODUCTION
liveliness, spirit, humour, and pathos, and it is a wonderful monument of medieval literature. The name of this section of the work is due to the framework in which it is set. Gylfi was king of Sweden, wise and skilled in cunning and magic. He wondered whether the 7Es\r or gods were so cunning by nature or whether this was a gift from the powers which they wor¬ shipped. It should be observed that here and elsewhere in Snorri’s Edday though not uniformly, as also in a Prologue to the work, he adopts the euhemeristic theory of the gods — they were mortal kings, magicians and the like. Gylfi, in the form of an old man called Gangleri, set out for Asgard, the seat of the gods. The JEsir, knowing who he really was and foreseeing his coming, prepared deceptions for him. He arrived and was well received, and was presented to three lords who sat on as many seats, one above the other. Their names were Har, £ High,5 Jafnhar, £ Equally High,5 and Thridi, £ Third 5 — all forms of Odin. Gylfi now began his questions. The answers are the myths of which Gylfaginning is full. When all had been re¬ counted, Gylfi heard great noises, and, looking round, found himself out of doors on a level plain. Hall and castle and ^Esir had vanished. He had been deceived by glamour.
In this part of his book Snorri uses some of the Eddie poems — V oluspa, Grimnismai , V afthrudnismal, with occa¬ sional use of four others. These he sometimes expands in reduc¬ ing them to prose. He also uses poems of an Eddie character now lost, save for fragments quoted by him, poems by the court poets, and, in all likelihood, much oral tradition. The result is a full and systematic account of Norse mythology as it was pos¬ sible to reconstruct it in Snorri’s day.
The second part, the Skaldskap armal , £ Poetry of skalds,5 is preceded by the Bragarcedur — an account of the origin of the poetic mead, told by Bragi to ^Egir, also a visitor to Asgard and the ^Esir. In the Skaldskaparmaly by means of innumerable quotations from skaldic verse, the use of kennings for many sub¬ jects is shown. Much of it deals with the gods and several
INTRODUCTION
7
myths are told. An example of the method used may be cited. £ How should one periphrase Njord? By calling him God of the Vanir, Kinsman of the Vanir, Van, Father of Frey and Freyja, God of wealth-giving.’ Then follows a verse by a skald illustrating some of these kennings.
The third part, the Hattataly c Enumeration of Metres,’ con¬ tains three songs of praise in which each of over a hundred stanzas is in a different metre, the oldest kinds being given last. Between them are definitions, comments and notes.
It may seem strange that, in a Christian age, Snorri should have composed a work full of pagan myths, regarded from a fairly tolerant point of view. But his enthusiasm as a lover of the past, an antiquary, a folk-lorist, and a poet, explains much. If there were objectors to this telling of heathen lore, the pur¬ pose of it — the guidance of youthful poets and the preservation of the glories of poetic tradition — would serve as its best apology in a cultured age.
The manuscript of the Poetic Edda owned by Sveinsson had been written c. 1300. It is now known as Codex Regius and is in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. It contains twenty-nine poems. Another manuscript in the Arnamagnsean collection at Copenhagen has six of the poems of Codex Regius and a sev¬ enth, Baldrs Draumar , which the latter lacks. Other manu¬ scripts contain four poems now included in the Eddie collection — Rigsthula , Hyndluljody and Svipdagsmaly which consists of two poems, Grougaldr and F jolsvinnsmal. Another poem, Grottasongry given in Snorri’s Edday is usually joined with these. Thus the Poetic Edda consists of thirty-four poems. Almost certainly many other poems of a similar kind and differ¬ ing from the poetry current in Norway must have existed, but are now lost. A few fragments of such poems are found in Snorri’s Edda. What we do possess is a collection of mythical and heroic poems, which, taken together with Snorri’s work, give us a connected though far from complete view of Norse mythology and heroic legend. Such collections of poems as are
8
INTRODUCTION
found in the Edda must have been made previous to 1300 a.d. and most probably in Iceland.
Iceland had been colonized from Norway in the ninth century as a result of Harold the Fair-haired’s victory over the Norse nobles, which gave him rule over the whole land. In Iceland there grew up a vigorous civilization and intellectual life, which was abundantly fostered by the links with the world overseas, through the roving habits of the Icelanders. This manifold life was enhanced by the coming of Christianity to Iceland. The Scandinavian peoples had remained outside the Christian fold long after the conversion of the other Teutonic peoples, though not unaffected by currents from Christian civilization. Den¬ mark received Christianity in the tenth century ; from there it passed to Sweden and by 1075 was firmly established there. Norway was Christianized during the tenth and eleventh cen¬ turies, and in the same period Iceland also became Christian.
Very different opinions are held regarding the date and place of composition of the Eddie poems. Probably many of them belong to the pagan period, i.e., before 1000 a.d. None of them were composed before 800 a.d., and only a few belong to so late a time as the twelfth century. The bulk of the mythological poems, i.e., those dealing with the divinities, were composed before 1000 a.d. Some scholars believe that the poems were written by Norsemen in the Western Isles of Britain and under Celtic influences, or, like Sophus Bugge, that the bulk of them are based on tales and poems heard by the Norsemen from Irishmen and Englishmen, and that these poems and tales were in turn based on Graeco-Roman myths and Jewish-Christian legends.1 Others hold that Norway was their place of origin. Others, again, maintain that they were Icelandic, part of the product of the busy intellectual life of that island. It is quite possible that both Norway and Iceland shared in their produc¬ tion. Two of the heroic poems, Atlamal and Atlakvitha were ascribed to Greenland in the thirteenth century manuscript. The authors of the Eddie poems are quite unknown.
INTRODUCTION
9
The poems are divided into two groups, mythological (stories in which the divinities are the chief personages) and heroic. The former are almost certainly based on native traditions regarding the gods. On the other hand the material of the heroic poems is not Scandinavian, but was carried to Norway from Denmark and Germany, and freely worked upon by the poets. One peculiarity of the Eddie poems is that they are not descriptive: only here and there a prose insertion explains the situation. Mostly they are in dialogue form, and the narrative is mirrored in the speeches of the protago¬ nists. Many explanations of this have been put forward. The most recent is that of Miss B. S. Phillpotts who maintains that many of the poems were folk-dramas, the action of the actors serving instead of explanatory narrative, while knowledge of the story of the drama would be presupposed.2
Of the mythological poems V olusp a stands first. It is spoken by a Volva or seeress, perhaps one raised from the dead for that purpose by Odin, whom she seems to address. She gives an ac¬ count of the origin of the world, of men, of dwarfs ; of the early days of the gods 5 and then passes on to a prophecy of the Doom of the gods, preceded by the death of Balder. The poem is impressive, though its meaning is occasionally obscure, and it seems probable that a much shorter original poem was added to and edited at different times.3
In certain poems Odin figures prominently. V ajthrudnismal tells of his questions to the giant Vafthrudnir, the answers form¬ ing a kind of cosmogonic encyclopaedia. Grimnismal is of the same character, though here Odin himself as Grimnir, set be¬ tween two fires by king Geirrod, gives the information to Geirrod’s son, Agnar, and in the end vanishes, while king Geirrod dies on his own sword. In Baldrs Draumar (c Balder’s Dreams ’), we see Odin descending to the Underworld to rouse a dead sibyl in order that she may explain Balder’s evil dreams. Havamal is a compound of several poems, in two of which ethical advice or proverbial wisdom is given, presumably by
10
INTRODUCTION
Odin. The poem also tells of Odin and the daughter of Billing, of his obtaining the poetic mead from Gunnlod, a giant’s daugh¬ ter, and of his gaining runes.
In other poems Thor is the chief protagonist. Hymiskvitha tells how he sought a huge kettle from the giant Hymir, and how he caught the Midgard-serpent when fishing with the giant. In T hrymskvitha Thor, disguised as Freyja, whom the giant Thrym desires as his wife, deceives the giant and slays him with his hammer, which the giant had stolen. Alvissmal tells how the dwarf Alviss desired Thor’s daughter as his wife. Thor demanded that he should recite the various names given to dif¬ ferent objects by gods, elves, giants, dwarfs, men, etc., and thus kept him talking till sunrise which is fatal to dwarfs. In Loka- senna , though Loki is the chief speaker, Thor appears towards the end of the poem and forces him to cease his slanders against the gods and goddesses.
Both Thor and Odin (as Harbard) figure in Harbardsljod. The poem is a £ flyting ’ or abusive dialogue between the gods, who boast of their exploits and threaten each other, Thor being ignorant that his opponent is Odin.4
Skirnismal is the story of Frey’s passion for the giantess Gerd and tells how his servant Skirnir was sent to seek her for the god.
In Hyndluljod Freyja, mounted on a boar (her lover Ottarr in disguise), seeks the wisdom of the seeress Hyndla to learn the descent of Ottarr. This poem contains a fragment of a cos¬ mogonic poem known as c the short V olusf a?
Rigsthula tells how the god Heimdall or Rig came to earth and begat the first thrall, the first karl or peasant, and the first jarl or warrior-noble. From the last there ultimately comes one who is a future king. The poem is thus one in praise of kingship, and for that reason is probably of Norwegian origin, though composed by one who had picked up much Celtic speech and culture.
Svipdagsmal consists of two parts — Grougaldr or c Groa’s
INTRODUCTION
1 1
spell,’ and Fjolsvinnsmal. In the first, Svipdag rouses his dead mother in order that she may aid him in his quest of Menglod, set him by his hostile step-mother. In the second we follow him on the quest and listen to the dialogue between him and the giant guardian of Menglod’s dwelling. In this there is much mythological information.
The heroic poems, with the exception of V olundarkvitha and the three Helgi poems, are concerned with the Volsungs and particularly with Sigurd, the German Siegfried.
V olundarkvitha consists of two poems about Volund joined together. The first is a Swan-maiden story ; the second deals with Volund in the power of King Nithud and his escape and revenge. Volund is Weyland the smith of English tradition, and the subject of the poem is of German origin. The stories must have passed from the Saxon region to Scandinavia.
The Helgi poems are based on Danish originals, Helgi hav¬ ing been a Danish hero. In Helgakvitha Hjorvardssonar Helgi is regarded as a different personage from the Helgi of the two Helgakvitha H undin gsh ana poems. Both, however, are the same traditional personage, and the prose annotation of the poems makes one a rebirth apparently of the other. The poems tell the adventures of the heroes, chiefly in avenging their fathers, and their love of Valkyries who are also daughters of men (Svava, Sigrun).
The remainder of the poems, sixteen in number, are devoted to various episodes of the story of the Volsungs.
Some of the poems of the skalds of the ninth and tenth cen¬ turies deal with mythological subjects and contain references to the deities or to 'myths about them. The authors of these poems, as distinct from the Eddie poems, are known to us by name. A convenient collection of these, with text and transla¬ tion, will be found in the Corfus Poeticum Boreale of G. Vig- fusson and Frederick York Powell.
From the Icelandic Sagas much information regarding reli¬ gion and folk-lore is derived. These Sagas are stories of a his-
12
INTRODUCTION
torical or biographical kind, though history and biography are often fictitious. Before they assumed written form from the mid-twelfth century onwards, Sagas had formed a favourite entertainment at festive gatherings, told orally by a skilled story-teller.5
Another source of information is the Gesta Danorum or His- toria Danica of Saxo Grammaticus, especially the first nine books. Saxo was a Danish scholar living in the twelfth cen¬ tury, and he has incorporated in his work both Danish and Norse materials — sagas, history, poems, and myths. Where myths of the gods are concerned, Saxo regards these deities from a euhemeristic point of view, as we shall see presently.
For Teutonic religion in general the sources are wider, but contain little regarding mythology. The classical writers, espe¬ cially Tacitus in his Germania and Annales , are first. Inscrip¬ tions with names of deities from altars and other monuments in the Romano-German area supply some information. There are also many scattered notices in ecclesiastical and other writings, Lives of Saints, and Histories, e.g., those of Bede or Gregory of Tours. Laws, secular and ecclesiastical, canons of Councils and Synods, the Penitentials, as well as passages of sermons, yield abundant evidence regarding surviving pagan customs and be¬ liefs. Place and personal names, names of plants and the like, have also been found significant. And, in general, folk-customs, folk-lore, and folk-stories, if critically regarded, can be used as sources of information regarding the distant past.
Although the chief if not the only source for mythology is contained in the Eddas , it is impossible to treat the subject with¬ out reference to what is known or can be deduced regarding the beliefs of the Teutonic people outside Scandinavia. Taking the myths themselves, some are nature myths, and the mean¬ ing of a few, at least, lies on the surface. Many writers on the subject of Eddie mythology have been tempted to give elaborate explanations of all the myths in terms of natural phe¬ nomena. Each writer treats a myth according to his own
■e
>
INTRODUCTION
i3
predilections. We cannot be certain that the old myths had any of the meanings assigned to them, certainly they could not have had all of these, and such writers do not seem to have seen that they themselves are modern mythologizers, elaborating a com¬ plicated mythology of their own upon the stories of the past.
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
CHAPTER I
THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY
A STANZA of the short Volusfa in Hyndluljod (30) says that eleven of the gods remained when Balder’s corpse was laid on the funeral pyre. Snorri also says that the number of the gods is twelve,1 but this is merely a round figure, not borne out by other references in his work. Thus, in the account of the gods which follows this statement, fourteen are named. These are Odin, Thor, Balder, Njord, Frey, Tyr, Bragi, Heim- dall, Hod, Vidarr, Vali, Ull, Forseti, and Loki.
At the beginning of the Bragarcedur Snorri enumerates the gods present at a banquet, and, including Odin, names thirteen of them. Balder is omitted, and Hoenir appears in place of Hod.
The prose introduction to Lokasenna names Odin, Thor, Bragi, Tyr, Njord, Frey, Vidarr, and Loki. In Grimnismal Odin, Ull, Frey, Balder, Heimdall, Forseti, Njord, Vidarr, and Thor are named. In other poems the other gods are mentioned.
With these gods are also several goddesses, some of whom are little more than names or hypostases of a greater goddess. Their names are Fri^g, consort of Odin, Freyja, sister of Frey, Saga, Eir, Gefjun, Fulla, Hnoss, Sjofn, Lofn, Var, Syn, Hlin, Snotra, Gna, Idunn, Nanna, Sif. Besides these, two local goddesses, Thorgerd Holgabrud and her sister Irpa, are men¬ tioned in Skaldskaparmal and in some of the Sagas.
Other more or less divine beings are mentioned occasionally. Vili and Ve are brothers of Odin, and form a kind of creative
1 6
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
triad with him. A similar triad is that of Odin, Hoenir, and Lodur. There are also subordinate gods, regarded as servants of the higher deities, e.g., Skirnir and Hermod. ^Lgir, not counted among the gods, is yet a god of the sea; a giant, how¬ ever, rather than a god. Ran is his consort. Then, again, Hel is a somewhat vague female personification of the Underworld.
Some of the gods are married to giantesses, who, as their consorts, are reckoned with the deities — Frey to Gerd, Njord to Skadi, Odin to Jord (Earth), co-wife with Frigg. Such nature objects as the sun, personified as Sol, and one of the two beings who follow the moon in the sky, i.e., Bil, are also reck¬ oned among the goddesses by Snorri.2
We do not know that all these deities were worshipped together in Norway and Iceland, indeed for many of them no evidence of a cult exists. Some may have been local divinities: some are regarded as creations of the skalds. Among them all Odin, Thor, and Frey are pre-eminent, but, as we shall see, the precise significance of Odin’s position in relation to Thor re¬ quires elucidation. In Snorri’s Edda Odin is head of a court or assembly of divinities. Their common home is Asgard, but most of them have a separate abode, as appears from Grimnismaly here followed by Snorri.
We now enquire whether any of these deities were known in other parts of the Germanic area outside Norway and Iceland.
For Denmark and Sweden we depend mainly on Saxo Gram¬ maticus and Adam of Bremen, the eleventh century historian. Saxo may be assumed to speak for the pagan past of Denmark, though he uses Icelandic sources to some extent in his curious account of the legendary history of that country. He has a conception of the gods as gods, though he generally tends to visualize them from a euhemeristic standpoint, as kings, magi¬ cians, and the like. He mentions Othinus (Odin), chief of the gods, whose rule, with that of the other gods, extended over Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, but who used to sojourn more continually at Upsala. Odin is also called Uggerus (Norse
r • - • - t
•*V' ■ ■; ;
* • *
-
f
/
PLATE IV
The Golden Horns
These golden horns were found in a field on the west coast of Slesvig, the longer in 1639, the shorter in 1734- The surfaces of the horns are divided into compartments with figures believed to represent deities and mythic scenes. The date of the horns is the fifth century a.d. If, as has been maintained by some, the scenes depict Eddie gods and myths, including repre¬ sentations of Valhall and Yggdrasil, then much of the mythology is of far earlier date than most scholars assign to it. This interpretation of the figures and scenes is, however, entirely hypothetical and has won little support. The runes at the rim of the smaller horn give the name of the artificer.
V.'v
THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY
J7
Ygg). Other deities named are Frey, £ satrap of the gods/ whose seat was at Upsalaj Thor, Balder, Hotherus (Hod), Ollerus (Ull), Freya (Frigg), and Nanna. Loki may be represented by Ugarthilocus (Utgard-Loki). Proserpina may stand for Hel.3 Adam of Bremen describes a sanctuary at Up- sala, with images of Thor, Woden, and Fricco (Frey).4 The other Eddie deities are not mentioned by these or other writers about the Danes and Swedes, though Procopius speaks of Ares as a Scandinavian deity, i.e., Odin or Tyr.5
For the Germanic tribes, apart from place or personal names, there are few references to the gods of the pagan period. Taci¬ tus gives Roman names to native gods^ — Mars (Ziu or Tyr), Mercury (Wodan), Hercules (perhaps Thor). He also men¬ tions a native name of a goddess Nerthus and describes her cult. Two brothers called Alcis are compared to Castor and Pollux, and are said to have been worshipped in a grove as deities by one tribe. He also speaks of the grove of Baduhenna among the Frisians and the temple of Tamfana among the Marsi. The first part of the name Baduhenna is connected with AS beaduy OHG batu-y ON bop., c war/ and the second part with OHG winna, c quarrel/ MHG winnen, c to rage/ Gothic winno , c pas¬ sion/ showing that Baduhenna was a War-goddess, c the war- mad one.5 A division of the Suebi worshipped Isis, whose sym¬ bol was a ship. This cult Tacitus considers of foreign origin, but it is doubtless that of a native goddess whose name is con¬ cealed in that of Isis.
Several names of deities are mentioned in inscriptions on altars and other monuments, mainly in Romano-German ter¬ ritory, but the names of these, doubtless more or less local deities, have nothing in common with those of Scandinavia.
More to the purpose are the two Merseburg charms found in a tenth century manuscript in the library of the cathedral at Merseburg, and probably of earlier date. Both charms refer to mythical actions of the deities, and by recounting these similar results are expected to follow. Such charms as these are met
i8
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
with in ancient times and are of widespread occurrence. The first charm concerns a group of beings called Idisi, a name re¬ sembling that of the Norse female spirits called Disir and in¬ cluding Valkyries and Norns. To the functions of the Val¬ kyries those of the Idisi in the charm correspond — binding or loosing fetters on prisoners of war and keeping back the enemy.
The other charm relates that while Phol and Uuodan (Wodan) rode to the wood, the foot of Balder’s colt was wrenched. Sinthgunt charmed it and her sister Sunna; then Fria charmed it and Volla her sister. Then Uuodan charmed it, as he well knew how to do. The implication is that the god¬ desses could not heal the foot by their magic, while Wodan’s magic succeeded. As we shall see later various explanations of £ Phol ’ have been suggested, while £ Balder ’ has been regarded as not a proper name here, but an appellative for £ prince,’ and referring to Odin himself, Phol being then explained as the name of Odin’s horse. Of the four goddesses Fria is Frigg; Volla suggests the Norse Fulla; Sunna may be a personification of the sun. Sinthgunt is unexplained. Some scholars think that two goddesses only are mentioned in the charm as present 5 it should then read: £ Sinthgunt, Sunna’s sister,’ and £ Fria, Volla’s sister.’ 6
Wodan and Frija (Frigg) were also known to the Lombards, as a legend concerning them shows.7
The next piece of evidence is derived from German names of the days of the week. These show that Wodan was known in North-west Germany and Holland; Fria (Frigg) over a wider area; Donar (Thor) all over Germany, Tiu (Tyr) in the South-west.
A formula of renunciation used at the baptism of Saxon con¬ verts in Charlemagne’s time names three gods — Woden, Thunaer (Thor), and Saxnot, as well as other Unholdeny divin¬ ities or spirits regarded from a Christian point of view as demons.8 Saxnot, £ Sword companion,’ is the Seaxneat of
THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY
i9
Anglo-Saxon genealogies, and is regarded as a form of the god Tyr.
Another god of a local kind is Fosite, mentioned in Alcuin’s Life of S. Willibrordy as worshipped on an island named after him. According to Adam of Bremen this island was Helgo¬ land.9 It is not certain that Fosite is the Eddie Forseti.
Turning now to the Anglo-Saxons, the only available evi¬ dence is that of names of the days of the week, genealogical lists, and place-names. The first of these gives Tiw or Tyr (Tues¬ day), Woden (Wednesday), Thunor or Thor (Thursday), Fri or Frigg (Friday). The genealogical lists of the royal families trace descent back to Woden. In those of Bernicia and Wessex Baddseg (Balder) succeeds Woden. In that of Essex Seaxneat is his son.10 Thor’s name occurs in place-names.
The evidence from these different regions shows that there was a certain number of deities known locally and objects of a local or tribal cult. Few names of these have been preserved. The wide acceptance of Roman deities by the Celts had no parallel among the Teutons. Nor does the rich variety of native Celtic local deities, whether equated or not with Roman deities, meet us in Teutonic lands. Inscriptions with names of local deities are few and generally enigmatic.11 On the other hand there are some deities known more or less over the whole area — Wodan or Woden or Odin, Thunor or Thor, Tiu or Tyr, and Frija, Fria, or Frigg. Hence these have been called c pan- Teutonic deities,’ who c must have come down from a period when the Teutons were still an undivided people.’ 12 Neverthe¬ less this statement of Mogk’s requires some modification, since, as is suggested by various lines of evidence and as he himself admits, the cult of Wodan migrated from Germany by way of Denmark to Scandinavia, where it tended to supersede that of Thor.
The divinities of Norse mythology are called TEsir (singular Ass). The original meaning of the word is uncertain. Mogk and others, however, regard it as connected etymologically with
20
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
Sanskrit anas, £ breath,’ £ wind.’ Hence the T^sir were origi¬ nally animistic beings or souls. * Odin, as leader of the host of the dead, belonged to the TEsir, but as his rank became higher and more divine so the word Ass as applied to him assumed the meaning of £ god,’ and all gods associated with Odin were known as Tisir, Odin being oztr asa , £ mightiest of the ^Esir.’ 13 This theory gains some support from the fact that the corresponding Gothic word ansis was used as the title of dead ancestral chiefs in the sense of semi-deos , according to Jordanes, the historian of the Goths. The Bardar-saga relates that, after his death, Bardar, as guardian spirit of the region about Snaefell was known as £ Snaefells-ass.’ 14 The corresponding Anglo-Saxon word is esa (singular os), used in the phrase esa gescot , ylfa gescot , £ the shot of esa and elves.’ Esa here apparently meant supernatural beings hostile to men, rather than gods, but the word may have once meant £ gods,’ and ^Esir and Alfar (£ elves ’) are frequently coupled together in Eddie poetry. In other branches of Teutonic speech a correspond¬ ing word is found as part of personal names — OHG ans in Anso, Anshelm, and the like, Saxon and AS os in Oswald, Oslaf, Osdag.
Among the ALsir were included certain deities, Njord, Frey, Freyja, and possibly others, called collectively Vanir. These were once opposed to the Aisir, according to certain myths. They were deities of wealth, fruitfulness, trade, and prosperity, and their name may be connected with words meaning c bright,’ £ shining.’
The gods are also known by the general neuter name gop , £ gods,’ with the epithet £ holy,’ £ blessed,’ this corresponding to Gothic gup ; AS and OS god. Under Christian influence the word became masculine. Other names applied to the gods are regen , the word signifying £ decreeing ’ and £ deciding,’ hence perhaps £ counsellors.’ V olusp a speaks of all the re gen assem¬ bling at the seat of judgment to take counsel. In Havamal , Alvissmal , and Hymiskvitha occurs the word ginn-regen , £the
THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY
21
high or holy gods,’ and in Alvissmal up-re gen is used with the meaning £ the gods above.’ In the two passages of Alvissmal where ginn-regen occurs the word may signify the Vanir.15
Still another term for gods is tivary £ shining ones,’ related to Sanskrit devas. It occurs in some of the Eddie poems. The forms sig-tivary val-tivary £ battle-gods,’ also occur.16 For some reason not quite clear gods are described as hopt ok bond , £ fastenings and bands ’ or £ fetters.’
Goddesses are included in the term Aisir, but a specific name for them is Asynjur (singular Asynja).
Generally speaking the gods of Eddie mythology are con¬ ceived under anthropomorphic forms, yet distinguished from men in different ways. Noble or princely men were sometimes regarded as gods. The sons of Hjalti, as they came to the assembly in Iceland, looked so magnificent and well-equipped that the people thought they were ALsir. Of Sigurd in his mag¬ nificent war-gear, riding a splendid horse, as he entered Gjuki’s town, it was said: £ Surely here comes one of the gods! ’ 17 The birth of some of the gods is related ; their human passions or weaknesses are described $ they grow old; eventually they must die.
Some of the gods are described in striking language. They are white or shining, like Balder or Heimdall. The goddess Sif is famed for her luxuriant gold hair. On the other hand, if they have not the numerous hands and arms of Hindu gods, some are deformed. Odin is one-eyed, Tyr has only one hand, Hod is blind. Probably most of the gods were regarded as larger than men: this is true of Thor in particular. Some are thought of as older, some younger. Odin is grey-bearded, yet has none of the weakness of age. Thor is as a man in his prime. Balder is a youth, attractive and graceful. Some of the gods waxed in size and strength as soon as born. Vali, son of Odin, avenged Balder’s death when he was one night old. Magni, son of Thor, when three nights old, could lift the giant Hrungnir’s foot off his father, though all the Aisir together
22
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
could not do this, and said that he would have slain him with his fist had not Thor killed him.
The gods eat and drink, and much is told of their banquets and ale or mead drinking. To Odin alone wine suffices for meat and drink. Thor is a gluttonous eater and drinker, whose gigantic meals are described. Though the gods are longer-lived than men, they are not absolutely immortal, and their long age or renewed youth depends upon eating the apples of immortality guarded by Idunn. To give immortal youth may originally have been the purpose of Odrorir, the magic mead of poesy.18 Yet the gods are doomed to destruction, and the death of Balder is recounted. Meanwhile they are subject to wounds, and Frey falls sick of love.
The gods have preternatural powers, knowledge, and strength, but sometimes this strength seems to depend on certain possessions, e.g., Thor’s hammer, girdle of strength, and gloves. Odin can overlook the worlds, but only when he sits on his Heaven-throne. Skirnismal shows that when Frey sat thereon, he had the same far vision. Magical powers were inherent in the gods : vanishing suddenly, transformation into other forms, human or animal, the production of glamour, and the like. Though they can move quickly from place to place, swift flight depends on a falcon’s plumage or feather-dress ( fadr-hamr ), which belongs to Freyja or Frigg, but is put on by others, e.g., Loki.
They are often described as riding, and their horses are famous steeds. They ride through air and sea and on land, or daily to their place of judgment. Earth shakes when they ride. Freyja rides on a boar, but she has also her wagon drawn by cats. Thor is famed for his wagon drawn by goats.
Like mortals the gods are subject to passions. They are mild or blithe. Their laughter is mentioned. They are joyous. But sometimes they are angry, and then their wrath is terrible, and especially is this true of Thor.19 They are subject to the pas-
PLATE V
Details of the Larger Horn
The upper compartment is assumed to depict the Fenris-wolf playing with the gods, then (below) bound, while Tyr with his hand bitten off is close by (see p. 99). The next compartments show gods and animals and animal-headed monsters. In the sixth the design is interpreted as showing wolves attacking the sun (see p. 199), and, in the lowest, as the entrance to the realm of the dead.
THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY
23
sion of love, and, besides their consorts, Odin and Thor have other wives or mistresses.
In many other ways the life of the gods reflects that of men. As described by Snorri, Odin, as chief of the gods, has a court which resembles that of earthly kings. The gods meet for counsel and judgment in the Thing, the Scandinavian assembly for the discussion of important matters and for the making of laws and giving of decisions. Snorri describes their riding daily over Bifrost, the rainbow-bridge, to the well of Urd, where they hold a tribunal. In the stanza which he quotes from Grimms - mal and which seems to refer to this, Thor is said to walk when he goes to give dooms at the ash Yggdrasil, beneath one of the roots of which is Urd’s well. The gods delight in banquets and feasting, in song and games of skill. They are fond of fighting and some of them follow the chase. The goddesses spin and weave j one of them, Gefjun, ploughs. They have servants, messengers, and cup-bearers.
The ^Esir dwell in Asgard as the Vanir dwell in Vanaheim, the Alfar in Alfheim, the giants in Jotunheim. Asgard is the heavenly home of the gods, but in Snorri’s euhemeristic ac¬ count, it is in the centre of the earth, perhaps on a mountain, its top reaching to the heavens. Gods also dwell on mountains. The poetic account in Grimnismal of the separate abodes of indi¬ vidual gods is probably due to skaldic fiction rather than to popular belief.
The rank and functions of the gods vary, but these will be discussed in dealing with them separately. It should be noted, however, that, in describing some of the gods, Snorri uses a kind of formula. He tells what phenomena of nature or department of life each one rules over, and for what things it is good for men to call upon them.20
There is a tendency to group certain gods together. Besides the larger groups of ^Esir and Vanir, we find certain gods asso¬ ciated, usually three in number. For purposes of cult this was true of Odin, Thor, and Frey. But myths associate Odin,
24
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
Hoenir, and Lodur (Loki) in the work of creation and in other actions, or, again, Odin and his brothers, Vili and Ve.21 Snorri tells how Gylfi was received by three lords of ascending rank, and their names Har, Jafnhar, and Thridi seem to be poetic names for Odin, as all three are given in the list of his names in Grimnismal. There may here have been some conscious imita¬ tion of the Christian Trinity by Snorri in this otherwise inexpli¬ cable triad.
The older grouping of the chief Germanic gods was that of Wodan, Donar and Ziu (Tyr), and it was connected, as doubt¬ less the other threefold groupings were, with the sacredness of the number three. It appears again in the Germanic theogony as reported by Tacitus in speaking of the progenitors of gods and men, the third member of the triad being a group of three — Tuisto, Mannus, and the three sons of Mannus. Corresponding to these in Eddie mythology are Buri, Borr, and Borr’s three sons, Odin, Vili and Ve. The same threefold grouping is seen in the three Norns, three Swan-maidens (as in the Volund story), three groups of Idisi in the Merseburg charm, and three groups of Valkyries, as in Helgakvitha Hjorvards sonar. 22
The relation of gods and men is generally that of interest and help on the one hand, and of dependence, exhibited by prayer and sacrifice, on the other. Certain offences or kinds of conduct seem to have been regarded as punishable by the gods. Myths speak of their coming and going among men, to help them or to take part in their affairs, as Odin does in battle. This was sym¬ bolized in ritual — the procession of a divine image in a wagon (Frey, Nerthus), in which, as Tacitus says, the actual deity was believed to be present.
CHAPTER II
THE VANIR
THOUGH associated in cult with the AEsir or even in¬ cluded among them in the Eddas , the Vanir are a small but distinct group of gods. They dwell in Vanaheim, not As- gard, and include Njord, Frey, and Freyja, possibly also Heim- dall, who is guardian of Frey and is said to be c like the Vanir 5 in knowing the future well. This forethought is not elsewhere attributed to the Vanir, but they are called c wised 1 They are also ‘warlike,5 just as Frey is ‘ battle-bold.5 2 Their general functions seem to be those of nature deities, rulers of the fruitful earth and of prosperity. They are connected with sea-faring, commerce, and hunting, with peace (Frey), and with love (Freyja). V afthrudnismal seems to regard them as a larger group than those specifically named, for it says that c the wise powers 5 (vis re gen) in Vanaheim created Njord, and that hav¬ ing been given as a pledge to the AEsir, at the Doom of the world he will return home to the Vanir. Other references to the Vanir suggest a numerous body, though this may be a result of the process of euhemerization, which is apt to make a group of deities into a whole people. Njord is called c god of the Vanir,5 c kinsman of the Vanir,5 with other epithets, applied also to his son Frey. His daughter Freyja is £ goddess of the Vanir,5 1 lady of the Vanir,5 c bride of the Vanir.5 3 Yet all three are included among the AEsir. The poem Alvissmal , like other Eddie references, however, shows clearly their separate identity, by telling what names they, as distinct from AEsir, Alfar, etc., use for different things. Sigrdrijumal also distinguishes them from the AEsir, when it says that runes were given to AEsir, Vanir, Alfar, and men.
2 6
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
This distinction is upheld also in the different and mostly euhemerized accounts of the war between the iEsir and the Vanir. Of this Snorri gives two accounts. In his Edda> Bragi, recounting to ^Egir the origins of poetry, says that the gods had a dispute with the people called Vanir. The cause or nature of the dispute is not mentioned. A peace-meeting was appointed, and peace was established by each and all spitting into a vat. When they parted, the gods would not let this token perish, but from it created a man, Kvasir. His story will be told later.4 A different account of the settlement is given in a previous chap¬ ter of the Edda. Njord, reared in Vanaheim, was delivered as hostage to the A5sir, Hoenir being taken in exchange by the Vanir. He became an atonement between the two groups. This statement is copied from Vajthrudnismal .5
The euhemeristic account of the war and final agreement is fuller in Snorri’s Ynglinga-saga. Odin and his host attacked the Vanir, who defended their land. Now one, now the other, prevailed: each harried the land of the other, until, tiring of this, they held a meeting of truce, made peace, and delivered hostages to each other. The Vanir gave their noblest — Njord the wealthy and his son Frey. The ^Esir gave Hoenir, and said that he was meet to be lord, big and goodly as he was. With him they gave Mimir, wisest of men, the Vanir giving for him one of their best wits, Kvasir. Hoenir was made lord at Vanaheim (here said to be situated at the mouth of the Tanais, at the Black Sea), and Mimir taught him good counsel. Hoenir’s stupidity was soon discovered by the Vanir when, at meetings of the Thing, Mimir not being present, Hoenir would say: £ Let others give rule,’ whenever any hard matter was brought up. They saw that the ^Esir had over-reached them, and, having cut Mimir’s throat, sent his head to the yEsir. Odin made Njord and Frey temple-priests or Diar (from Irish dta> ‘god’). Njord’s daughter Freyja first taught spell-craft ( seidr ) ac¬ cording to the custom of the Vanir among the ^Esir (i.e., some special form of magic). Frey and Freyja, though brother and
THE VANIR
27
sister, were married, also in accordance with Vanir custom.6 Vanaheim, thus made a district on earth’s surface, is one of the nine worlds mentioned in Alvissmal.
A less euhemeristic account of this war and its origin is found in Volusia. The seeress remembers the first war in the world. The EEsir had smitten Gollveig with spears and burned her in Odin’s hall. Three times they burned her, yet ever she lives. They called her Heid, a Volva, a magic-wielder, who practised mind-disturbing magic and sorcery, and was the desire of evil women. All the gods held council whether the EEsir should give tribute, i.e., to the Vanir, or all gods (EEsir and Vanir) should share the sacrifices. Odin threw his spear over the host — this happened in the first world-war ; now the Vanir trod the field, and the wall of Asgard was broken down.
The order of the stanzas telling this myth varies in different manuscripts, and the account of Odin’s throwing his spear and the subsequent fight should probably precede the account of the council of EEsir and Vanir. The meaning seems to be that Gollveig, who may be Freyja, came among the AEsir and was shamefully treated, perhaps for her skill in magic. This led to the war, in which the citadel of the EEsir was broken down and the Vanir were triumphant. A council was then held. From the prose sources we gather that a compromise was arrived at — the sharing of the cult by both groups and an exchange of hostages. The latter is known to the author of V aft hr udnismal , and must have been part of the original myth.
Gollveig, ‘ Gold-might,’ who is burned and comes alive again, is thought to embody the power of gold and its refining by fire. Whether she is the same as Heid, or whether the stanza about Heid is in its wrong place and refers to the Volva who utters the whole poem, is a moot point. If Gollveig and Heid are identical, both have some connexion with Freyja. Freyja’s tears are said to be red gold, and gold is called Freyja’s tears.7 Freyja is described as a sorceress who introduced magic or a special kind of magic among the EEsir. Gollveig-Heid would
28
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
thus be Freyja, and the ill-treatment of this Vanir god¬ dess would be the cause of the war. Unfortunately the myth in Voluspa is too enigmatic and the stories given by Snorri are too much euhemerized, to tell exactly what the primitive form of the myth was. Whether, as asserted by Miillenhoff, it meant that by gold the gods were corrupted or endangered, like heroes of Sagas, is problematical. Gollveig may, however, have some connexion with the introduction of gold among the Northern people.
This myth of a war between groups of gods or of these re¬ garded more or less as mortals, seems to reflect the opposition of rival cults and their upholders — one recently introduced and gaining popularity, but opposed by the supporters of the other. At last, after violent conflict, a compromise was effected and both cults now existed side by side. The groups of deities are linked together, but their separate origin is never quite for¬ gotten. Which group of gods was first in the field, and where was the scene of this cult war? Opinions vary. Njord is closely linked to the goddess Nerthus whose cult on an island, probably Seeland, is described by Tacitus. Frey, sometimes called Yngvi-Frey, would then have been, like Nerthus, a divinity of the Teutonic amphictyony known as the Ingvseones, whose habitat was North-west Germany. The Vanir group would thus be indigenous in that region: did it there come in contact with an incoming cult of Odin, with the result of a cult war, the legends of which were carried to Scandinavia with the passing of the cult to that region?
On the other hand, the Vanir cult, passing to Sweden, where the worship of Frey obtained great prominence and was carried thence to Norway and Iceland, would come in conflict with the cult of Odin recently introduced into Sweden, and Sweden would thus be the scene of a cult war. It will be observed that Odin is the chief protagonist on the side of the Aisir in the myth.8
Others think that the cult of Frey, the Svia-god, or Sweden-
THE VANIR
29
god, or the blot or £ sacrifice ’ god of Sweden, though introduced to Sweden from without, was now firmly rooted there. The cult of Odin, the Saxa-god or Saxon-god, was introduced later, c. 800 a.d., and aroused a strong national counter-current of opposition. This is the view of Golther, and Chadwick says: c That the two cults of Odin and Frey were originally quite dis¬ tinct, and that the latter was the earlier of the two, there can hardly be any serious doubt.’ 9
Whatever be the truth regarding this cult war, it is clear that some fusion occurred, and that now the temples, altars, and images of fiLsir and Vanir stood side by side. This is seen from historical notices of cult, and from the grouping of Odin, Thor, and Frey.
Golther also finds a trace of this cult war in another chapter of the Ynglinga-saga. After Odin heard that good land was to be found in Gylfi’s country or Sweden, he journeyed there. Gylfi had no power to withstand the JEsir folk. Peace was made, and Odin and Gylfi had many dealings in cunning tricks and illusion. Odin erected a temple with blood-offerings ac¬ cording to the custom of the ^Esir at Sigtun. Frey’s seat was at Upsala.10 Here, instead of the Vanir, the Swedish king opposes Odin, and the latter succeeds in establishing a cult. The Swedish kings, who regarded themselves as descendants of Frey, would naturally oppose the cult of Odin.
Though the cult of Odin does not strike one as other than that of a barbaric people, that of the Vanir was not necessarily more enlightened, and it has some primitive traits — the brother-sister marriages of Njord and of Frey, and the phallic aspect of the latter. <
There are traces also of the opposition between gods of light, fertility, merchandise, and prosperity, such as the Vanir were, and gods of war, like Odin — the gods of people with con¬ trasted cultures, but later coalescing and sharing cult and sacrifice. This appears in the statement of V olusfa about TLsir and Vanir sharing sacrifices, and of the Ynglinga-saga , that the
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
30
Eisir had blood-offerings, while Odin gave sites to the c temple- priests,’ i.e., the gods Njord, Frey, etc.11
A similar view of a war between divinities is found in the euhemerized accounts of Celtic mythology in Ireland. The Tuatha De Danann fought with Firbolgs and Fomorians. Yet both intermarried or were in friendly relations with each other. There is an echo here of the strife of friendly and hostile nature powers, or, more likely, of the conquest of aboriginal people and their deities by an incoming race and their gods, with sub¬ sequent union between the two.12
CHAPTER III
EUHEMERISM
THE theory of the Greek Euhemerus (fourth century b.c.) that the gods were deified men, played an important part in the later Christian interpretation of the deities of dif¬ ferent lands. Along with the beliefs that the gods were really devils, this theory that they had been men who, usually by demoniac aid or magic craft, dominated the minds of their fel¬ lows and caused them to worship them, was the stock argument against paganism for many centuries. We need not be sur¬ prised, therefore, to find it used as an explanation of the origin of the Scandinavian deities, even by the mythographer Snorri himself, who has preserved so much of the old mythology.
Snorri was an enthusiast for the traditions of the past as well as for the poetic art and its fitting expression, but he was a Christian, and therefore could not believe in the truth of these traditions nor in the gods themselves. Hence he says, address¬ ing his audience of youthful skalds, that while they should not forget nor discredit the traditions by removing from poetry the ancient metaphors which originated out of them, yet, on the other hand, Christian men could not believe in pagan gods nor in the truth of the myths about them except in the sense set forth in the beginning of the book.1
The beginning of the book of which he speaks is the Pro¬ logue to the Edda, which, because it is written from the euhe- meristic point of view in greater or less contradiction to the standpoint of the book itself, has sometimes been regarded as by another hand. On the contrary, Snorri’s definition of his posi¬ tion shows that this Prologue and the traditions or myths of the book are quite in keeping with each other.
32
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
The Prologue begins with a notice of the Creation, of Noah and the Flood, and of the races descended from him, and their thoughts about all that they saw around them. The world is divided into three parts — Africa, Europe, and Asia. The centre of the earth, Troy or Turkland, is in Asia, c best of homes and haunts.’ Here we notice the influence of the classical tradi¬ tion of Troy, as distinct from the general medieval view, as in Dante, that Jerusalem was the centre of the earth. In Troy were twelve kingdoms and one high king. In the stronghold were twelve chieftains, and one of these, Munon (Agamem¬ non), had a son Tror or Thor, by Troan, daughter of Priam. At twelve years old he had attained his full strength, and went forth over all the earth, slaying berserks, giants, dragons, and beasts. He married the prophetess Sibil, c whom we call Sif.’ From him, strangely enough, and certainly in contra¬ diction to what is said in the Edda , through a long line of descendants, came Voden, c whom we call Odin,’ a man famed for wisdom and every accomplishment. His wife was Frigida (Frigg).
Odin and Frigg had second sight, and thus he knew that his name would be exalted in the northern regions. With a great multitude he journeyed out of Turkland, wandering over many lands, where he and his people seemed more like gods than men. At last they came to Saxland, where Odin abode long, taking possession of the land. In it he set three of his sons to rule — Vegdeg, Beldeg (Balder), and Sigi from whom came the Vol- sungs. Odin now made his way northwards to Reidgothland (Jutland), where he set his son Skjold, ancestor of the Skjol- dings or kings of the Danes.
Going still farther north, Odin came to Sweden, then ruled by Gylfi. When Gylfi heard of the coming of these .Esir, or c men of Asia,’ he met them, offering Odin such power in his kingdom as he himself wielded. Learned medieval etymology thus connected the .Esir with Asia. Snorri says that well-being, good seasons, and peace followed on the footsteps of Odin and
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PLATE VI
Details of the Smaller Horn
As interpreted by J. J. A. Worsaae this horn depicts scenes from Valhall. In the upper compartment is Odin with spear, sceptre, and the ring Draupnir. Be¬ low him is the boar Saehrimnir. To the left are two Einherjar; to the right Odin’s wolves, the hart Eik- thyrnir, and the goat Heidrun. Beyond these is Frey with sickle and sceptre; below him the boar Gullin- bursti. The next compartment shows, to the right, a three-headed figure representing the triad of gods, Odin, Thor, and Frey (others regard the figure as that of Thor). The large serpent is Loki with Idunn’s apple in his mouth. The bird attacking a fish is the giant Thjazi; the fish is Loki. To the extreme left are figures symbolizing the slaying of Balder. The third compartment represents the gate of Valhall, fish swimming in the river surrounding it, the Ash Ygg- drasil with the serpent Nidhogg at its roots, Hermod on Sleipnir, etc. In the fourth is Frey, with horse and sickle. All this interpretation is purely hypothetical.
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EUHEMERISM
33
the JEsir. Men believed that these were caused by them. The yEsir were unlike all other men in fairness and wisdom.
In this region Odin founded a city called Sigtun, and estab¬ lished chieftains there as in Troy, with twelve doomsmen to judge. He now went to Norway and set his son Sasming to rule there. Another of his sons, Yngvi, was king in Sweden after him, and from him are descended the Ynglings.
Snorri stops short here, without explaining how Odin and his sons came to be worshipped as gods, but it is clear that, in his mind, the gods had once been heroic men. This is more defi¬ nitely shown in the earlier chapters of the Y nglmga-saga , which forms the first part of his Heimskringla.
Here it is said that a great river, Tanais, flows from the North over Sweden to the Black Sea, dividing Europe and Asia. To the East of it is Asaheim, the land of the ^Esirj its chief city is Asgard (the Troy of the Prologue to the Edda). Here a great chieftain, Odin, dwelt. It was a place of blood-offerings, with twelve temple-priests, who ruled the sacrifices and judged be¬ tween men. They were called Diar or Drotnar, and all men were bound to their service.
Odin was a great warrior and far-travelled, who conquered many realms and was always victorious. He went West and South, even to Saxland, where he set his sons to rule. Thence he journeyed North to an island called now Odin’s island in Fion. Afterwards he went to Gylfi’s land and made peace with him. Gylfi knew that he could not withstand the ^Esir, who were mightier than he, especially in magic. Odin abode at the Low and made there a great temple. This he called Sigtun, and here he gave their abodes to the temple- priests. Njord dwelt at Noatun, Frey at Upsala, Heimdall at Himinbjorg, Thor at Thrudvang, Balder at Breidablik.
Having told how Odin and the Diar taught crafts to the North countries, Snorri gives details of Odin’s superiority in many things, especially magic, an account of which will be given in Chapter IV. Hence he grew famous. He taught much of
34
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
his cunning to the temple-priests, who were now next to him in magic and craft. Others got knowledge of this magic, and so it spread far and wide and lasted long.
To Odin and these twelve lords men now offered sacrifice and called them gods, and named their children after them — a clear statement of the euhemeristic point of view.
Odin settled laws and arranged how the dead were to be burned with their goods, so that they might come to Valhall. All over Sweden men paid Odin tribute, but he was bound to keep their land from war, and to sacrifice for them for a good year. At last he died in his bed in Sweden, but was marked with a spear-point, claiming as his own all who died by weapons. He said that he would go his way to Godheim and there wel¬ come all his friends. The Swedes thought that he had gone to the Asgard of old days, there to live for ever. So began anew the worship of Odin and vowing of vows to him. The Swedes believed that he showed himself to them in dreams before a battle. To some he gave victory ; others he bade come to him; and either lot was held to be good.
To Odin succeeded Njord, and to him Frey, and a similar euhemeristic account is given of these.2
The notices of the deities given by Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum show that he also adopted the euhemeristic theory, probably from Icelandic writers who preceded him and from whom he borrowed. But he differs from Snorri in his incisive and contemptuous way of referring to the gods. He has none of Snorri’s irony or wit or delight in the humour of a story, none of his interest in preserving traditions intact. To him the gods were mortal deceivers and magicians. There had been in old days three races of such magicians. The first was that of the giants. Following them was a race skilled in divina¬ tion, and surpassing the giants in mental power as these sur¬ passed them in bodily condition. Constant wars for supremacy were waged between them, till the second race subdued the first, and gained not merely rule but also the repute of being
EUHEMERISM
35
divine. Both races were skilled in the art of delusion and in appearing to change their form or that of others. The third race, springing from the union of the two others, had neither the bodily size nor the skill in magic of their parents, yet they gained credit as gods with those deluded by their magic.3
The second race is apparently the 7Es\r, but the third is more obscure, and perhaps Vanir, or Alfar, or Dwarfs are intended. The passage, however, is far from clear, and is not connected with what is presently said of Odin and other deities.
According to Saxo the gods first dwelt in Byzantium, which here stands for Asgard, in a senatus divinus or collegium. This resembles Snorri’s account of the temple-priests. Odin was reckoned to be chief of the gods. He was believed all over Europe to have the honour of divinity, which was false. He used to dwell much at Upsala, and the kings of the North, anxious to worship his deity, made an image of him, which they sent to Byzantium. Frey, the regent (, satrafa ) of the gods, also took up his abode at Upsala.4
These scattered statements are followed by a more definite notice of Saxo’s opinion. In former days there were men who excelled in sorcery — Thor, Odin, and many others. They were cunning in contriving magical tricks, and thus, gaining the minds of the simple, they began to claim the rank of gods. They ensnared Norway, Sweden, and Denmark in the vainest credulity, and by moving these lands to worship them, infected them with their imposture. The effect of this spread far and wide, and men adored a sort of divine power in them, and, supposing them to be gods or in league with gods, they offered up prayers to them. Elence days are called by their names, and Saxo here enters into a short discussion of their equivalence with Roman deities. He concludes by telling his readers that they will now know to what kind of worship their country once bowed the knee.5
Saxo is sometimes satirical towards these deified impostors. When Odin seeks advice from diviners and prophets regarding
36 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
vengeance on Balder, he adds this comment: c Godhead that is incomplete is often in need of human help.5 6
According to the theories set forth by Snorri and Saxo, the gods had once been kings or priests or men possessed of pro¬ found magical powers, and because of their superiority or their cunning, caused credulous people to worship them as deities both before and after their deaths.
CHAPTER IV
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
IN one form or another Odin or Wodan was known to many of the Teutonic peoples, for, since he is undoubtedly the god whom the interpretatio Romana identified with Mercury, the existence of a word formed from his name for the title of the fourth day of the week, corresponding to Dies Mercurlus , was widespread. This was in OS Wodanes dag, in AS Wodenes daeg (English Wednesday), OF Wonsdei, ON Odensdagr (Swedish and Danish Onsdag), MHG Wodenesdach, Gudens- dag.1
Among the tribes of Upper Germany (Alemanni, Bavarians, Suabians), the name of Wodan for the fourth day of the week is unknown, the word mittawecha> c mid-week/ taking its place, and suggesting that Wodan was unknown to them, or did not occupy a high place when the Roman names for the days of the week were introduced on Teutonic ground, and rendered in terms of the names of native gods. Place-, plant-, and star- names formed from Wodan are also lacking in this region.2
Tacitus says that the Germans, i.e., the Rhineland tribes, chiefly worship Mercury, to whom on certain days they think it lawful to offer human sacrifice.3 The Batavians dedicated votive tablets to Mercury, either alone (one of these is to Mercurio Regi) or with Hercules (the native Donar) and Mars (Tiu). An altar to Mercurio Channini has been found in the upper Ahr region. Mercury here stands for Wodan. Jonas of Bobbio speaks of the god Vodan as Mercury, and Paulus Diaconus says that Gwoden is called Mercury by the Romans.4 Wodan is thus probably the Mercury mentioned with Jupiter in the eighth century Indiculus Super stltlonum (c. 8) as gods to
38 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
whom sacrifices were offered and whose festivals were observed by the Saxons even in Christian times.
The cult of Wodan was thus found over a wide area, but it is generally believed that it spread outward from one central re¬ gion — Lower Germany, or that, if in most places indigenous, it grew in importance through influences from that central re¬ gion. The Saxons, Frisians, and Franks gave Wodan a high place. When the Saxons entered England in the fifth century, Woden was their principal god, from whom chiefs and kings claimed descent.5 He was still the god whom the Saxons in their native region were forced to renounce at baptism in the eighth century, along with other gods.6
An interesting legend regarding the Lombards, who had been neighbours of the Saxons, is preserved by Paulus Diaconus, and relates to the time of their southward migration in the fifth cen¬ tury. Paulus calls them Vinili, and says that when they en¬ countered the Vandals, the latter implored victory from Godan (Wodan), who replied that he would give it to those whom he saw first at sunrise. Gambara, mother of the Lombard leaders, now approached Wodan’s consort, Frea, and begged her for vic¬ tory. Frea gave the advice that the Lombard women should join the men with their hair hanging over their faces, in order to give them a bearded appearance. Wodan, looking from his win¬ dows towards the East, would see them. This advice was fol¬ lowed, and Wodan, seeing the Lombards, asked: £ Who are these Longobardi? ’ (Longbeards, Lombards). Frea replied that he ought to grant victory to those on whom he had conferred a name, and this Wodan did. According to Paulus, Wodan was worshipped by all the German tribes. This legend is related by earlier writers with variations. Wodan’s seat is in the sky, just as in the Eddas he looks over the world from his seat Hlidskjalf, and is giver of victory.7
The Alemanni were influenced by the Franks in religious matters. S. Columbanus found them sacrificing to Wuotan, and the Merseburg charm, found in Alemannic territory, shows that
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
39
Wodan, as a god of healing or of magic, was known to one of their tribes, possibly the Thuringians.8
Saxo relates myths of Othinus among the Danes and repre¬ sents him as their chief god. How far a cult of Wodan was indigenous in Denmark is uncertain, for Saxo’s sources are in part Norwegian and Icelandic as well as Danish.
In the Scandinavian region, as is seen from the native litera¬ ture, Odin appears as chief god, head of a pantheon which, in Snorri’s Edday seems to be imitated from classical sources. There is some evidence that this position was given to him in the Viking age, from the eighth century onwards, and mainly in royal and aristocratic circles, and that he was much less god of the folk, with whom Thor had a higher place. In Adam of Bremen’s account of the Swedish deities, Wodan, god of war, has a lower place than Thor.9 The accounts in Snorri and Saxo of Odin’s coming to Scandinavia from Saxland, where he had reigned for a long time, may contain a kernel of truth — ■ the cult of the high god Wodan (Odin), the Saxa-god, god of the Saxons’ land, coming from there to Scandinavia.10
The inter'pretatio Romana of Wodan as Mercury is not clear, but Csesar had regarded the chief god of the Gauls as equivalent to Mercury. That god was described by him as c the inventor of arts, guide of travellers, and possessing great influence over bargains and commerce.’ 11 Tacitus and later writers may have regarded Wodan in the light of what they knew of the Gaulish god. Tacitus does in fact mention Mars in close connexion with the German Mercury, as if the latter were also a War-god. If his functions resembled those of the Gaulish Mercury, these find a certain parallel in what is said of Odin in Hyndluljod by Freyja. He gives gold to his followers, weapons and armour to heroes, triumph to some, treasure to others, to many wisdom and skill in words, fair winds to sailors, to the poet his art, to heroes valour. In other Eddie attributes of Odin there is a further resemblance — his skill in arts, his mastery in magic, his description as a traveller. Like Mercury he was a god or
40
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
leader of the dead. Both gods were depicted with hat and staff. In spite of this, the identification with Mercury still remains a problem, especially when we consider the warlike aspect of Odin. As he appears in the Eddas, Odin is on the one hand a War-god who gives victory or defeat. On the other hand, he is concerned with wisdom, magic, cunning, and poetry, of which he was creator, according to the skalds.
Snorri says that the Swedes believed that Odin appeared in dreams before great battles, giving victory to some or inviting some to himself, and either lot was thought good. We may compare with this Adam of Bremen’s account of Odin as wor¬ shipped by the Swedes at Upsala. c Wodan carries on wars, and gives courage to men against their foes.’ He also says that his image resembled that of the Roman Mars. Obviously Odin’s functions as a War-god had become prominent, and he had taken the place of the god Tyr, if this deity was a god of war. Tyr’s place is quite subordinate in the Eddas.
The name Wodan (OHG Wuotan, OS Wodan, AS Woden, ON Obenn) is found in the OHG personal name Wuotunc and in the appellative wotan , glossed tyrannus . Wode, Wude, Wute, and the like, names of the leader of the Furious Host, Wudes Heer, are probably dialect forms of Wodan. The Furious Host was the storm personified as a host of spirits rush¬ ing through the air with their leader, who had many local names. The derivations of the name Wodan vary. It has been con¬ nected with a root wod, found in Old Teutonic wodo, c mad,’ ‘ furious,’ and ON op-r, c poetic frenzy ’ (cf. Irish faith, Latin vates). This would refer the name to the god’s attributes in connexion with poetry and poetic inspiration. With this deriva¬ tion may be noted Adam of Bremen’s explanation: c Wodan, id est furor? Another suggested derivation is that which connects Wodan with Indo-Germanic wa, c to blow,’ with the idea that the god in his earliest form was a spirit or god of the wind, and, as the spirits of the dead were supposed to wander in the wind, a spirit or god of the dead. The traditions of the Furious Host,
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
4i
spread all over the Germanic area and traced back to medieval times, are held to prove that Wodan had once been known to all Germanic peoples in the aspect of the leader of the Furious Host. With some of the groups he attained a much higher position, ultimately becoming the chief god. Before the evi¬ dence for this is set forth, it is well to consider that medieval tradition is somewhat doubtful as an index of belief in the pagan period. The leadership of the Furious Host was apt to be given now to this, now to that personage, and often to one with a bad reputation.12 As all pagan gods were regarded in Christian times as sinister and demoniac, is it not possible that Wodan, as a discredited deity, was popularly made leader of what was known to be a demoniac host, and that he had not been so regarded in pagan times?
The name £ daz wuetunde Her 5 or £ wutendes Heer,5 £ Furi¬ ous Host,5 is found in the thirteenth century, and is connected etymologically with £ Wuotes Heer,5 £ Wuotunges Heer,5 £ Wodan’s Host,5 mentioned in fourteenth century writings.13 German tradition still preserves the memory of Wodan’s Host. When the Host is heard by the Mecklenburg peasant, he cries £de Wode tut,5 £ Wode passes,5 or, as in Pomerania and Hol¬ stein, £ Wode jaget,5 £ Wode hunts.5 A furious tempest is called £ Wudes Heer 5 in the Eifel.14 £ Wutes 5 or £ Mutes Heer 5 is known in Suabia as is £ Wuetes Heer 5 in Bavaria. Wotn hunts in Austria, and the belief in £ das wlitende Heer 5 is widespread, the Host being led by different personages.15 In Swedish folk- tradition (Smaland) £ Oden’s jagt 5 is known, and in storms the folk say, £ Oden far forbi 5 or £ Odin jager.5 Here Odin rides, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, with two or more hounds. Else¬ where in Scandinavia howling wind is thought to be caused by the rolling of Odin’s wagon.16
The main aspects of the Furious Host are found in the leader, often wearing a cloak and a broad hat, and riding a white or black horse, with a number of hounds, and in his train of fol¬ lowers, among whom are sometimes souls — those not good
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
42
enough for Heaven nor bad enough for Hell, or the unbaptized, suicides, and the like, these probably taking the place of an earlier more general throng of the dead. The Host rushes along with noise and shouting, hunting animals or the Moss- wives, the Wood-wife, the Mer- woman, or other female elfins. It appears in autumn or spring, but generally in the Twelve Nights, from Christmas to Epiphany. Generally the Host presages evil or works harm, but sometimes when it is heard as soft music, it betokens a good harvest. In order to escape injury from it, one should fall on one’s face, or keep the middle of the road, or run to a wayside cross, or to the cross-roads. Many stories are told of adventures of wayfarers with\ the Host, and it has often a hellish aspect.17 The leader often bears some form of the name Hackelberg, the equivalent of Hakel-berend, c the Mantle-wearer.’ Another name for him is Breit-hut or ‘ Broad Hat.’
In some degree corresponding to this in Norse mythology, and perhaps pointing to Odin as god of the wind, are the names given to him. He is called Vafud, Vegtam (‘ Wanderer ’), Gangler (‘Traveller’), Omi (‘ Noisy one’), Vidforull (‘Far- traveller ’), or, as in Saxo, viator indejessus , c unwearied travel¬ ler,’ or in Snorri’s Heimskringla , ‘ the far travelled.’ He says in V ajthrudnismal ‘ much have I travelled,’ or Gong have I travelled.’ 18 We hear in Harbardsljod of his journeys, and in a story of his appearing to king Olaf, he tells him of his travels. Whether all this denotes that Odin was an earlier god of the wind may be doubted, but it suggests that, as traveller, he is akin to the Gaulish Mercury, god of travellers, as well as to the classic god Mercury.
One of the magic runes which Odin knows points to his power over the wind. If there is need to shelter his ship, he calms the wind and makes the waves sleep by its means. He gives fair winds to sailors, as Freyja says in Hyndluljod. The storm subsides when Odin, the man from the mountain, goes on board Sigurd’s ship.19 Odin, as god of cargoes, Farma-tyr, may have
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
43
been so called because he gave fair winds, and was thus a god worshipped by sailors.20
To the appearance of the leader of the Host corresponds that of Odin with his cloak, under which he conveys his proteges through the air,21 his broad-brimmed hat, and his long grey beard, giving rise to his names Sidhottr (£ with broad hat ’), Harbard (£ grey beard ’), and Skidskegg (£ long beard ’). He also rides through sea and air the famous grey, eight-legged steed, Sleipnir, £ best of all horses,’ born of Loki in the form of a mare to the giant’s stallion Svadilfari.22 Baldrs Draumar gives a picture of Odin saddling Sleipnir and riding down to Niflhel to consult the Volva about Balder’s baleful dreams, On Sleipnir he rides daily to Urd’s well to the divine tribunal, and, after Balder’s death, Odin’s son, Hermod, rode Sleipnir to Hel to offer a ransom for Balder.23 Snorri depicts Odin riding forth with gold helmet, birnie, and his spear Gungnir, to fight at the end of all things.24 The name of the world-tree, Yggdrasil, means £ Ygg’s horse,’ Ygg (£ the Terrible ’) being a name of Odin’s.25 The true name of the tree is Askr Yggdrasils (£ the ash of Yggdrasil ’ or £ of Odin’s steed ’).26 The gallows is also called Odin’s steed, and he is galga valdyr (£ lord of the gallows ’) and hanga-tyr (£ god of the hanged ’). The gallows was a steed ridden by the hanged, and Odin himself had hung on a tree (whether Yggdrasil or another) for nine nights, as is told in Havamal. Later legend knew of a smith in Nesjar in 1208 a.d. to whom came a rider asking him to shoe his horse. The smith had never seen such large horseshoes nor heard of such journeys as the stranger told him he had undertaken in a brief space of time. Then the stranger revealed himself as Odin and bade the smith watch how he would leap his horse over a hedge seven ells high. Having done this, horse and rider van¬ ished. Four nights later a great battle was fought.27 In the same way the Furious Host was sometimes a precursor of battle, but it must be confessed that, apart from the rather forced sug¬ gestions of Odin as a rider and the like, the Eddas do not sup-
44 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
port the theory of the god’s origin in a leader of the Furious Host.
As the wind was believed to rest in a hill in calm weather and to come forth in a storm, so the Furious Host sometimes comes from a hill and goes to a hill. If we regard the dead as follow¬ ing in the train of the Host or of Wodan, then we may conceive of them as dwelling in a hollow hill ruled over by the god. To this corresponds the numerous mountain names such as Wodenesberg, Wodnesbeorh ( mons W odeni ), Othensberg, Odensberg, Gudenesberg.28 When Regin and Sigurd were in a storm at sea, a man was seen standing on a mountain. As the ship passed he asked who they were, and when Regin told him and demanded his name, he replied that he was called Hnikar, £ Thruster,’ but now they must call him Karl aj berge , £ the man of the mountain.’ He was Odin. Gudrun speaks of Sigtyr’s (£ the Victory-god’s) mountain in Atlakvitha ,29 In this con¬ ception of Odin or Wodan as god of a mountain and of the mountain as a place of the dead, may be seen the germ of the Valhall myth as developed in the Viking age (see p. 31 5). To die was £ to journey to Odin ’ ( til Odins far a' ), or< £ to be a guest with Odin,’ or £ to visit Odin,’ and similar phrases with the same meaning were used of Valhall. Saxo tells how Odin, as a man of amazing height called Rostarus, cured Siward’s wounds on condition of his consecrating to him the souls of all slain by him in battle. So the Landnama-bok tells how Helgi said, when Thorgrim was slain: £ I gave Asmod’s heir to Odin.’ 30
Epithets of Odin’s show his connexion with the dead. He is drauga drottinn , £ lord of the ghosts ’ ; hanga drottmn > £ lord of the hanged hanga tyr and hanga- go d> £ god of the hanged galga valdr> £ lord of the gallows ’ ; valgautr , £ god of the slain.’ 31 Souls of those slain by violence go in the Furious Host, and souls of heroes go to Odin in Valhall. Hence, too, he was called val-fadir , £ father of the slain,’ because, as Snorri says, £ all that fall in battle are sons of his adoption ’ ( oski synir).32
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
45
Valkjosandi, ‘ chooser of the slain,’ is one of Odin’s titles in Kormaks-saga.
According to Grimnismal Odin in Gladsheim, ‘ the world of joy,’ where the wide, gold-shining Valhall lies, chooses daily those who are to fall in strife. For them, says Snorri, he ap¬ points Valhall, c Hall of the slain,’ and Vingolf, c friendly Floor.’ Hence c the way of the slain ’ is the way to Val¬ hall.33 The Valkyries, c Choosers of the slain,’ were sent by Odin to every battle ; they determined men’s feyness and awarded victory and took the slain.34 They were called Wish- maidens, because they fulfilled Odin’s wishes about the slain.35 On one occasion Odin, as god of the dead, acted as ferryman of the dead to the Other World. Sinfjotli’s body' was carried by Sigmund to a f j ord, where was a boat with a man in it, who of¬ fered to take Sigmund across. But when he had carried the body into the boat there was no place for Sigmund, and the man dis¬ appeared with the body. He was Odin,36 and the incident illus¬ trates the belief in the dead being ferried over to the region of the dead. In Harbardsljod Odin, as Harbard, appears as a ferryman.
Although Odin’s lofty character is emphasized by Snorri and in the court poetry of the skalds, both in his Edda and still more in the Eddie poems Odin appears in lower aspects. Indeed, in these poems Odin is hardly at all the lofty War-god and the creator who appears in skaldic verse, much less the supreme god of a pantheon. Especially is his connexion with magic empha¬ sized. He is aldenn gautry c the enchanter old ’ j galdrs jadiry ‘ father of magic,’ and he spoke magic and mighty charms to the dead Volva whom he had raised, yet required to seek knowledge of Balder’s fate from her.37 Loki accused Odin of having once worked charms like witches in Samsey, disguising himself as a witch and going thus among men.38 Saxo tells how Odin dis¬ guised himself as a soldier and struck Rinda with a piece of bark on which were written charms (runes), thus driving her to frenzy. This was already referred to by the skald Kormak in
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
46
the line £ Odin wrought charms on Rind.5 39 From Hlebard the giant Odin got a magic wand ( gambantein ) and then stole away his understanding ; and Odin admits that he learned scornful language from the dead in their hills. Both incidents occur in Harbardsljod .40 As in the Merseburg charm where Odin is found curing a lame horse by a charm or magic rune, so in Havamal he describes the power of the magic songs known to him. They bring help in sickness and sorrow, and in witchcraft ; they produce fetters and blunt an enemy’s weapons ; they break fetters j they stop the swiftest arrows ; they neutralize the dan¬ ger of a root on which magic runes are written and turn the danger against the sender ; they quench fire, remove hatred, calm the wind, work on House-riders or witches, aid friends in fight, make a hanged man talk to him, give knowledge of the gods and elves, and win love. One of these had been sung by the dwarf Thjodrorir, who sang c strength to the ^Eisir, success to the Alfar, and wisdom to Hroptatyr 5 (Odin).41
When Mimir’s head was sent by the Vanir to the TLsir, Odin embalmed it and spoke magic runes over it, so that it might impart wisdom to him at any time. It told him tidings from other worlds. V oluspa refers to this when, before the Doom of the gods, Odin is said to give heed to the head of Mimir, and in Sigrdrifumal he is depicted with sword and helmet, standing on a mountain and consulting Mimir’s head.42 Elsewhere it is Mimir himself whom Odin consults. This recalls Celtic myth and custom about heads. Those of enemies were offered to divinities. Bodies or heads of warriors had a powerful influence, and the head of the Brythonic god Bran, when cut off, preserved the land from invasion, and, in its presence, time passed as a dream.43 Odin, called Hropt, is said to have arranged thought- runes out of the draught which dropped from the head of Heith- draupnir and the horn of Hoddrofnir, both probably names of Mimir. To Odin Loddfafnir owes his magic knowledge.44
As a result of his magic powers Odin takes different forms, that of a ferryman, a servant or peasant, a snake, an eagle, as
PLATE VII
Odin
Odin riding, with helmet, spear, and shield. The birds are his ravens. See p. 65. Part of a helmet found in the royal graves at Vendel, Sweden, and dating from c. 900 a.d. From Stolpe and Arne, V en- del-jyndet. See pp. 58, 2 1 7.
(
TKE f . ARY
Of THE
mmm c? ms:
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
47
in myths presently to be given. Hence he is called Fjolnir, ‘ the many-shaped.’ 45
To this corresponds Snorri’s euhemerized account of Odin in his Ynglinga-saga. He was far-seeing and wise in wizardry. He waked the dead and would sit under hanged men, to obtain knowledge from them. By words alone he slaked fire or stilled the sea, and would turn the wind in whatever way he desired. He knew the fate of men and things in the future, or how to work ill or to take strength and wit from men and give these to others. Of all buried treasure did he know, as well as runes to open the earth, mountains, rocks, and mounds, and how to bind their inmates with words. Then he would go in and take what he wished. He would change his shape, and while his body lay as if asleep or dead, he himself was in a bird or wild beast, a fish or worm, and he would go in the twinkling of an eye on his own errands or those of others.46 All this is merely the cur¬ rent belief in magical practices and assumed possible actions re¬ flected back on Odin, who in this aspect resembles a shaman.
In this aspect, also, so prominent in the Eddie poems as com¬ pared with those of the court poets, we see a somewhat different Odin from Odin the supreme god of a pantheon and god of war. He is altogether on a lower level, and perhaps we may suppose that this was the popular view of him, as contrasted with that of the aristocracy, the warriors and skalds.
This lower aspect of Odin is seen in what is said of his amours, of which he boasts, and we hear how he sometimes made women or giantesses his victims by means of magic runes. He wrought charms on Rind the giantess, who bore him a son Vali or Ali, the avenger of Balder.47 This is much elaborated in Saxo. Rind, called by Saxo Rinda, is in this account daughter of the king of the Ruthenians. After Balder’s death Odin, though chief of the gods, enquired of prophets and diviners how to avenge his son, and one of these, a Finn, said that a son must be born to him by Rinda. Odin, as a soldier, gained her father’s favour, but Rinda would have nothing to say to
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
48
him. Next year as one skilled in smith-craft, he made many wonderful things for the king and for Rinda, who still refused him. Again as a soldier he sought to win her and tried to kiss her, but she repelled him. He now touched her with a piece of bark on which runes were written, and she became like one in frenzy. Then as a maiden with skill in leechcraft, he said that he would cure Rinda. So he gained access to her, and now accomplished his desires. The child born was called Bous, not Vali, as in the Eddas ,48
In Harbardsljod Odin boasts of overcoming seven sisters, and of working much love-craft with the Night-riders or witches, alluring them by stealth from their husbands. He had also an amour with a £ linen-white ’ maid, and with Grid, mother of Vidarr.49
Two stories, both put in Odin’s mouth, show little reverence for him and are told from a humorous point of view. Both are found in Havamaly and a verse stating that lacking the desired joy is worse than sickness, precedes the first story, that of Bil¬ ling’s daughter. Odin lay in the reeds awaiting her who was dear to him as his life. He entered the house y she was asleep on her bed, bright as the sun for beauty. She bade him come at evening in secret, but when he did so, a band of warriors with torches prevented his entering. He returned at early morning when all were asleep, only to find a dog tied to her bed. So he draws the moral: £ many fair maids are found fickle.’ 50
The same poem gives briefly the story of Odin’s acquiring the poetic mead and his love affair with Gunnlod, daughter of the giant Suttung. This is prefaced by the saying that good memory and eloquence are needful to the sage, as Odin found in the hall of the old giant Suttung, over-reaching Gunnlod c with many words.’ With the snout of Rati he penetrated the rocks and so entered the place. Gunnlod gave him a draught of the mead from her golden seat: poor was his recompense to her. He got the mead Odrorir as well as Gunnlod’s favours. Had he not won her, hardly would he have returned from the giants’
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
49
halls. Next day the Frost-giants came to ask about Hor (Odin) in his hall. They asked whether Bolverk had returned to the gods, or had Suttung slain him — Bolverk being the name under which Odin had passed. The episode ends by saying that Odin had forsworn himself: how can he be trusted? He defrauded Suttung of the mead and left Gunnlod in grief. This myth is also mentioned in earlier stanzas of Havamaly where Odin speaks of being overcome with beer, c fettered with the feathers of the bird of forgetfulness (the heron) in Gunnlod’s abode, very drunk in the house of wise Fjallar ’ (Suttung).51
Miss Martin Clarke has compared these two stories with each other and with that of Odin and Rinda, and has suggested that all three may be versions of the poetic mead myth, mutilated in the Billing’s daughter and Rinda stories. In all three there are a hero, a reluctant lady, a wooing, a crafty disguise or stealth, a definite purpose, and a final success in the Gunnlod and Rinda stories, a rebuff in the third tale. But, interesting as the sug¬ gestion is, the Rinda story has a purpose quite distinct from that of the mead story, viz., to obtain a son who will avenge Balder’s death.
Odin was not always victorious. With Loki and Hoenir he was overcome by Hreidmar after killing Otter, and forced to pay wergild or be slain.52 In Lokasenna, Odin shows him¬ self frightened for Loki, and it is Thor, not Odin, who silences him.
In spite of his wide knowledge, if not omniscience, Odin re¬ quires to seek knowledge, especially of the future. This he obtains from the Volva, who recites the drama of the last things, or from a dead seeresS who tells of Balder’s fate. Again he obtains knowledge from the giant Suttung’s mead, from the giant Vafthrudnir, from the dead or spirits or dwarfs, and from Mimir.53 Odin is called c friend of Mimir,’ who is perhaps a water-spirit, with his well beneath one of the roots of Yggdrasil ; in this well wisdom and understanding are stored. Hence Mimir himself is full of wisdom and drinks of the well from
50
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
the Gjallar-horn. To him came Odin and desired a drink of the well, but Mimir withheld it until he had given his eye in pledge. Now the eye is hidden in the well, and Mimir is said to drink every morning from this pledge, perhaps regarded as some kind of vessel, or out of it is poured water for the tree. The picture of Mimir drinking from Odin’s eye is perhaps the mistake of a later redactor of the poem, as Boer has shown.54 Odin consults Mimir, as when he rides to his well to take counsel with him before the Doom of the gods, but elsewhere, as has been seen, he consults Mimir’s head.55
Another picture is given of Odin with the goddess Saga, daily drinking in gladness from golden cups out of the cool waves of her abode, Sokkvabekk (£ sinking stream,’ c torrent ’). Saga has been regarded by Gering as a form of Frigg, Odin’s con¬ sort, or by Grimm as Odin’s daughter or wife, but Snorri men¬ tions her separately from Frigg as second of the goddesses, and he describes Sokkvabekk as c a great abode.’ Golther considers Saga to be a female water-elfin, dwelling in the stream, and visited by Odin to obtain knowledge, which is thus again connected with the water, or to carry on a love affair.56
Odin is the possessor of magic runes, or even their creator, according to Havamal. He, c the chief of singers,’ coloured them — an allusion to the practice of reddening the engraved runes, e.g., with blood ; and he as c ruler ’ or £ speaker ’ of the gods wrote or carved them. Another section of Havamal tells in an obscure manner how Odin came to possess magic runes: —
4 I know that I hung On the wind-stirred tree Nine nights long,
Wounded by spear,
Consecrated to Odin,
Myself to myself;
On the mighty tree Of which no man knows Out of what root it springs.
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
5i
No one refreshed me With horn or bread;
I looked downward.
I took up the runes,
Shrieking I took them,
Then I fell to the ground.
Bestla’s brother,
Son of Bolthorn,
Taught me nine mighty songs;
And a drink I obtained Of the choice mead Out of Odrorir.
Then I began to thrive And gained wisdom.
I grew and felt well;
One word led to another,
One deed to another.’ 57
These lines and their meaning have been much discussed, and it is not certain that all the stanzas belong together. They may be fragments from different poems. The third stanza suggests an interpolation from a poetic form of the myth of the mead stolen from Suttung, c of which,’ says Snorri, c he who drinks becomes a skald.’ Three myths of the gaining of runes or wisdom seem to be conj oined as a narrative in three acts, as shown by Boer. These are ( 1 ) a myth of Odin’s acquiring runes by hanging on a tree and wounded by a spear, an offering to himself. He bows his head and looks down, perhaps into the deep, and takes up the runes, falling now from the tree to the ground. How he took up runes while hanging is not clear: perhaps a magical act is intended. The tree is taken to be Yggdrasil by most commentators, but is it? The whole pas¬ sage is puzzling, and no other evidence exists to support this view of the tree.
(2) The second rune myth refers to Odin’s learning magic songs from the son of Bolthorn who is father of Bestla, Odin’s mother. If the son of Bolthorn dwells at the foot of the tree,
52 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
he might be Mimir, who also has such an abode, and who is thus Odin’s uncle.
(3) The third rune myth tells how Odin obtained a draught of the mead out of Odrorir, possibly through use of these magic
songs.58
Whether Odin’s hanging on the tree is to be connected with the idea that Yggdrasil is Odin’s gallows is uncertain. Bugge supposed that the lines are a reflexion from Christian belief regarding the Crucifixion, yet even so, some older Odin myth may underlie them. There is perhaps some link with human sacrifice to Odin by hanging the victim on a tree and stabbing him. Odin himself, regarded as a king in Snorri’s euhemerized account, died in bed but was yet marked with a spear-point, and claimed as his own all who died by weapons.59 A mythic story of such a sacrifice is told in the Gautreks-saga. The ships of king Vikar had encountered a great storm and the sacrificial chips had indicated that it was necessary to propitiate Odin by a human victim. The lot fell on the king himself, and all were now in such fear that it was resolved to defer the sacrifice till next day. Meanwhile Odin desired his foster-son, the hero Starkad, to bring about Vikar’s death, in return for his favours to him. He told him what he must do. Next day, when the counsellors suggested that a mere mock sacrifice of Vikar should be made, Starkad gave directions how this should be done. Vikar was made to stand on the stump of a tree and a noose made of the entrails of a newly slaughtered calf was placed round his neck and attached to a branch, which Starkad held down. Then he thrust at Vikar with a reed which Odin had given him and which now became a spear, at the same time letting go the branch. The noose became a strong rope: the stump was overturned; and thus Vikar was both hung and stabbed. As these changes occurred, Starkad said: c Now I give you to Odin.’ 60
A fuller version of the Odrorir myth is given by Snorri in the Bragarcedur as an explanation of the origin of the art of poetry.
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
53
Here it is connected with the war between Aisir and Vanir. To establish a pledge of peace between the two parties, both of them spat into a vessel. This is doubtless derived from some folk- custom, of which there are examples from other regions, show¬ ing that the saliva-rite is analogous to the blood-covenant.61 This saliva now becomes the subject of a further myth, for, as is obvious, if the saliva of men is important in folk-belief, that of gods must have greater virtues. The Aisir took the contents of the vessel and out of the saliva formed the being Kvasir, who was so wise that to every question about anything he could give the right answer. He went everywhere instructing men, until the dwarfs Fjalar and Galarr slew him, and collected his blood in the kettle Odrorir and in the vats Son and Bodn. They blended honey with the blood, and so formed the mead of which whoso drinks becomes a skald. These dwarfs, having drowned the giant Gilling and slain his wife, were set on a reef by Suttung, the son of the giant pair. Over this reef the waters poured at high tide, and to save themselves they offered him the precious mead as a satisfaction. Suttung hid it in the rock Hnitbj org, and set his daughter Gunnlod to watch it.
The story then goes on to tell how the T^sir came into pos¬ session of the mead. Odin set out and came to a place where nine thralls were mowing. He took out a hone from his belt and sharpened their scythes so that they cut better than ever before. As they wished to possess the hone, he threw it up in the air, and when they rushed to catch it, each struck his scythe against the other’s neck. Odin now went to the giant Baugi, Suttung’s brother, to seek a night’s lodging. Baugi was be¬ wailing the loss of his thralls, and Odin, calling himself Bolverk, offered to do their work, asking as wage a draught of Suttung’s mead. Baugi said that he had no control over it, but neverthe¬ less went with Odin to Suttung when harvest was over. When Suttung heard of the bargain, he refused to grant a drop of the mead. Odin, as Bolverk, now suggested certain wiles to Baugi, who agreed to them. He drew out the auger Rati,
54
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
c Gnawer,’ and bade Baugi pierce the rock with it. When the hole was made, Bolverk changed himself into a serpent and crawled through it. Baugi, who had tried to deceive him in boring the hole, thrust at him with the auger but missed him. Bolverk now went to the place where Gunnlod was and slept with her for three nights. Then she gave him three draughts of the mead. With the first draught he emptied Odrorir ; with the second Bodn, with the third Son, and thus gained all the mead. Turning himself into an eagle, he flew off swiftly. Suttung saw the eagle in flight, and himself as an eagle pursued it. When the JEsir saw Odin approach, they set out vats, and Odin, entering Asgard, spat out the mead into these. But he was so nearly caught by Suttung that he sent some mead back¬ wards. No heed was taken of it 5 whosoever would might have it: it is called the poetaster’s part. Odin gave the mead to the ^Esir and to those men who have the ability of composition.
In this tale and in one of the Havamal passages the vessel containing the mead is called Odrorir ; in the other Havamal passage it is the mead itself that is so called. The myth has some likeness to the Indian Soma myth. Soma is medicinal and immortal j it has to do with poetry and stimulates speech. It was acquired through a Soma plant having been brought from the mountains by an eagle, and Indra on one occasion is called an eagle in connexion with Soma.62 The story has some rela¬ tion to the numerous folk-tales in which the wife or daughter of a giant or monster aids a hero who escapes with the giant’s treasure.
The poetic mead is now in possession of Odin, but it was first, like all wisdom, as V ajthrudnismal suggests, in the possession of giants. Hence Odin gives wisdom to many, and to the poets their art. Egil, though resenting his being deprived of his sons by Odin, says that Mimir’s friend has given him a recompense in the gift of the poetic art. The hero Starkad obtained from Odin the art of poetry or the composing of spells. A poet called himself ‘>Ygg’s (Odin’s) ale-bearer,’ and poetry is styled
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
55
c gift/ c find/ c drink/ ‘ booty ’ of Odin, or ‘ Odin’s mead/ c Odin’s kettle-liquor/ as well as c liquid of the dwarfs/ £ Gunn- lod’s liquor/ c Kvasir’s blood/ ‘ Suttung’s mead/ and the like, with reference to this story.63 Odin was thus god of the skalds, to whom he gave their gift of verse.
The Havamal or ‘ words of the High One ’ (Odin) sets forth a long array of wise sayings applicable to the incidents and con¬ duct of daily life. Then follows the Odrorir story y a series of counsels addressed to Loddfafnir; the story of Odin and the runes 5 and a list of runes or rather of the effects of such runes. The whole seems to be intended as a kind of summary of Odin’s wisdom due, as we may suppose, to the actions recorded in the myths. That Odin should be god of poetry at a time when poetry had been so highly developed in the North, may be a development of his being lord of magic runes, which were in verse form. c All his craft he taught by runes/ says Snorri in the Y ngllnga-saga , and again: c In measures did he speak all things, even such as skald-craft now uses.’ 64 Save for the Odrorir myth, it is Odin’s invention or possession of magic runes which is emphasized in the Eddie poems, thus laying stress on his character as a master of magic, winner and user of runes. According to Havamal Odin made runes for the ^Esir, as Dainn did for the Alfar, Dvalinn for the dwarfs, and Asvid for the giants.65
Odin’s position as god of war is not prominent in the Eddie poems. Even in Harbardsljod , where he boasts of his exploits, he does not speak much of warlike deeds. That he became god of war is undoubted. Though Tacitus equates Wodan with Mercury, the human sacrifices offered to him can hardly be ex¬ plained otherwise than as sacrifices to a War-god. Odin caused the first war, that between ^Esir (of whom Odin alone is named) and Vanir. As V olusp a says: c He hurled his spear on the host, and war then came first into the world.’ According to Harbards¬ ljod and Helgi Hundmgsbanay he causes war, makes princes angry, brings peace never, and raises strife even between kindred
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
56
by means of spiteful runes, and is guilty of all ill.™ This is corroborated by the old pagan proverb: £ Odin sets kings war¬ ring 5 j and by Saxo, who tells how the god, disguised as Brun, Harald’s counsellor, shook the union of the kings by his treach¬ ery, and sowed strife so guilefully that he caused hatred among men bound by friendship and kin, which seemed unappeasable save by war.67 In Harbardsljod Odin speaks of his presence with the host j in Lokasenna he is charged by Loki with partial¬ ity, giving victory to those who do not deserve it. He is angry when victory is given against his will, as by the Valkyrie Bryn- hild to Agnar, and for this he casts her into a magic sleep by means of a sleep-thorn. 6S He takes part in the battles of men and helps his favourites to victory. Hence men entreat his favour and he promises victory.69 To his favourites he gives weapons. Dag, son of Hogni, sacrificed to Odin in order to be avenged of his father’s death. Odin gave him his spear, which made victory sure. Frey j a in Hyndluljod says that to his followers he gives gold, to Hermod helm and coat of mail, to Sigmund a sword, and triumph to some.70 A curious statement in Helgi Hundingsbana says that Odin gave to Helgi co-rule with himself when he came to Valhall.71
Saxo shows how Odin is patron of heroes and kings. When Hadding was passing Norway with his fleet, an old man on the shore signed to him with his mantle to put ashore. In spite of opposition, Hadding did this, took him on board, and was taught how to order his army in the wedge formation attributed to Odin. When the army was thus disposed, the old man stood behind it and shot ten arrows at the enemy, and also overcame the rain-storm caused by their spells, driving it back and causing a mist. Before leaving, he told Hadding that he would die by his own hand, and bade him prefer glorious to obscure wars, and those with remote rather than with neighbouring people. The old man was Odin. A later passage tells how he was the discoverer and imparter of the wedge-shaped formation. In the likeness of Brun, he set Harald’s army in this array, but the
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
57
army of Ring, Harald’s opponent, was also found to be in the same formation, doubtless also taught them by Odin. Already Odin, as a one-eyed old man, of great height, in a hairy mantle, had appeared to Harald, revealing to him that he was Odin, versed in the practice of war, and instructing him regarding this wedge formation.72
Odin went forth with the host to battle, and, in Saxo, we see him not only provoking war between Harald and Ring, but in the form of Brun taking part in the battle. Harald besought him to give victory to the Danes, promising to dedicate to him the spirits of all who fell. Odin remained unmoved, thrust the king out of his chariot, and slew him with his own weapon.73 This personal share of the god in battle in order to secure vic¬ tims, occurs elsewhere. His desire was to fill Valhall with chosen warriors, einherjar , who would aid the gods in time of need. Hence he caused death to his favourites, even in the hour of victory, or they were foredoomed to slay themselves, like Hadding, or their death was brought about by Odin at the hands of another, as Vikar’s by Starkad.74 The clearest state¬ ment of this is found in Eiriksmal. Sigmund asked Odin why he robbed Eirik of life, seeing that Odin regarded him as a mighty warrior. Odin answered that it was because none knew when the grey wolf would come to the seat of the gods.75
The Valkyries were sent to battle-fields to choose those who were to die. As these helmeted maids rode forth, their corselets were besprinkled with blood, and from their spears sparks flew forth.76
Sacrifices, even of human victims, were offered to Odin for victory, and also after a victory, when prisoners were sacrificed, though such sacrifices may have been less common in Norway than in Denmark and Sweden. Hence we hear of a leader de¬ voting the enemy to Odin, or shouting to the opposing army: c Odin has you all.5 Reflexions of this are found in some of Saxo’s references to Odin, as when he cured Siward’s wounds, on condition of his devoting the slain to him, or when Harald
58 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
offered him the souls of the slain. Earlier in his life Harald had vowed to Odin all souls cast forth from their bodies by his sword, because of Odin’s boon to him. He received such favours from Odin, whose oracle was supposed to be the cause of his birth, that steel could not injure him, and shafts which wounded others could do him no harm.77
Snorri’s euhemerized account of Odin speaks of him as a great warrior, who made many realms his own and always gained the victory. His men held that of his own nature he would always be victorious. Before sending them to war, he laid his hands on them and blessed them, and they believed they would fare well thereby. In sore straits by sea or land they called on him, and deemed that they gained help. In battle their foes were made blind, deaf, or terror-stricken, and their weapons rendered useless. His men went without birnies, and were mad as dogs or wolves, bit on their shields, and were strong as bears or bulls — a reminiscence of the berserkr-gangry or £ berserker-rage.’ In Snorri’s Prologue to the Edday Odin, as a king, goes from land to land, occupying them and making them his own. So Saxo calls Odin £ the mighty in battle,’ and Mars £ the war-waging god,’ and he is said to have a white shield and a great horse.78 On a helmet found in a grave at Vendel, in Sweden, of the Iron Age period, a warrior on horse¬ back, armed, with helmet, shield, and spear, is believed to repre¬ sent Odin, as two birds in flight, one on each side of the head, are most probably his ravens.79
Odin’s names or titles bear witness to his functions as god of war. He is Sigfadir, £ Father of victory ’5 Sigtyr, £ god of vic¬ tory.’ Oaths were sworn by £ Sigtyr’s mountain.’ His city was Sigtun. Other names are Hertyr, £ god of hosts’; Heryan, £ Leader of hosts ’; Herfadir, £ Father of hosts’; Valfadir, £ Father of the slaind He is Hnikarr, £ Spear-lord ’; Biflindi, £ Spear-brandisher ’5 he is £ the weapon-decked’ god. Hence many kennings for battle connect it with Odin. It is his £ grim¬ ness ’ or £ fury,’ £ the storm of Odin,’ £ the storm-wind of the
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
59
Valkyries ’$ the sword is c Odin’s fire.’ c Weapons and arms should be periphrased in figures of battle and with reference to Odin and the Valkyries,’ says Snorri in Skaldskaparmal. We
may also recall what Adam of Bremen said of Odin as god of
80
war.
While generally, though not invariably, Odin is more promi¬ nent than Thor in the myths, this prominence is much less ob¬ vious in historical documents. There must have been a time when Odin was unknown in Scandinavia, or on a much lower level than that which he ultimately attained. Odin as Wodan was certainly prominent at an earlier time in Germany, espe¬ cially in its southern region. The presumption, therefore, is that the cult of Odin as a higher god, possibly with that of others, passed first to Denmark and then to Sweden, where he gained popularity. Perhaps he was first worshipped, or his cult first came to prominence, in Gautland or Gotland, in South Sweden, for he was called Gaut, Gautatyr, £ god of the Gauts,’ and also c friend of the Gauts.’ 81 From Sweden his cult passed to Norway, where, however, it never overthrew that of the indigenous Thor. In the Sagas relating to the families of Ice¬ land, the cult of Odin is never mentioned. It is only in those which concern the legendary period that he is prominent.
This migration of cult may be indicated in the migration legend, as told by Snorri, that Odin and others came from the South-east to Denmark and Sweden, as well as in the fact that Adam of Bremen still knows Odin at Upsala as Wodenus, a Saxon form of the name, while Danish documents know him as Wodhen. Significant, too, is his name Saxagod, c god of the Saxons.’ 82 '
The growing supremacy of Odin was one aspect of the growth of a new culture in the Viking age and the rise of a splendid courtly life through the power of the great kings. The art of war was cultivated for itself: the art of poetry was fostered by kings, and skalds became a definite class in this new and vigor¬ ous stage of history. Odin was associated with both war and
6o
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
poetry. He became important and necessary to kings, nobles, and court poets, and those aspects of his personality con¬ nected with war and poetry were ever the more emphasized. Odin’s seat was a royal court: he himself a supreme divine ruler.
Yet even in the Eddie poems there are hints of the earlier stages when Odin was not so prominent, just as they emphasize lower aspects of his personality, as we have seen. We see Frey seated on Odin’s Hlidskjalf, looking over the world, possessed of a magic horse, sword, and the ring Draupnir, and called folk- valdi go da, c chief of the gods,’ in Skirnismal. Frigg and Gefjun share foreknowledge with Odin in Lokasenna, and Freyja shares the slain with him, according to Grimnismal. Thor, who had been chief god in Norway, remained chief god of the people, in contradistinction to the aristocracy, and he was especially prominent in Iceland, where kingship did not exist and few of the emigrants were of royal blood. This seems to be hinted at in Harbardsljod where the nobles who fall in battle are said to be Odin’s, but the peasants belong to Thor, the rough, homely, peasant-like god.83 Odin, as a god of knowledge, is contrasted with Thor, the embodiment of physical force. Even Odin’s spear, the warrior’s weapon, suggests a higher stage of culture than Thor’s hammer. Odin drinks wine, which is meat and drink to him: Thor drinks ale and is a mighty eater. Snorri, it is true, speaks of the first toast drunk at festivals as one consecrated to Odin, c for victory and power to the king,’ but this cannot override the more general evidence regarding Thor, nor the fact that the Islendinga Sogur never speak of temples, images, or priests of Odin in Iceland.
Odin’s growing cult, on the whole, however, affected the more popular cults of Thor and Frey, and in the later Scan¬ dinavian literature he has achieved the highest position as head of a pantheon. To him were assimilated many lesser and local gods, whose individual functions corresponded to some of Odin’s. Many of the names given to him must be the last
PLATE VIII
Swedish Grave-stone
Grave-stone from Tjangvide, Gotland, Sweden, c. iooo a.d. The figure on the eight-legged horse may¬ be Odin on Sleipnir. See p. 65.
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN
6 1
traces of such local deities, just as the Ollerus and Mit-othin stories, presently to be given, suggest that he had absorbed the personality and cult of other gods.
c Of all the gods Odin is the greatest,’ and, according to Snorri, he is foremost and oldest of the gods, or, as in V olusp a> ruler of the gods. c He lives through all ages and rules all realms, and directs all things, small and great.’ He is Alda- fadir, c father of men,’ c because he is father of all the gods and men,’ and, as in the Lombard story, he is depicted as sitting in the high seat, Hlidskjalf, looking out over the world and seeing every man’s deeds.84 Grimnismal shows Odin and Frigg sit¬ ting on this seat and viewing the whole world, and from it Odin looked forth and saw where Loki had hidden himself. Hlid¬ skjalf is in Valaskjalf, one of the heavenly abodes, made by the gods and thatched with silver, and possibly the same as Valhall.85
The other gods or TEsir are Odin’s people. He is highest and eldest of these ; he rules all things, and, mighty as are the others, all serve him as children obey a father. With Vili and Ve, or Hoenir and Loki, Odin is creator or fashioner of the world, of the first man and woman, to whom he gave soul. But Snorri, apart from the myths which tell of this, says that Odin c fashioned Heaven and earth and air, and all things in them: he made man and gave him the immortal spirit.’ 86 As chief god Odin grants to men their wishes, and he has knowledge of all things, though this is not necessarily innate to him, but gained in different ways. We see him displaying his cosmogonic knowl¬ edge to Agnar in Grimnismal. Frigg had said that his fosterling, king Geirrod, was misbrly and tortured his guests if too many of these came to him. Odin denied this and set off to prove it. Meanwhile Frigg sent Fulla to Geirrod to tell him that he must beware of a magician who is coming to him, and whom he will know by the sign that the fiercest dog will not leap at him. Odin, calling himself Grimnir, c the hooded one,’ arrived, clad in a dark blue mantle, and would not speak when questioned.
6 2
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
Geirrod tortured him by setting him between two fires for eight nights. Geirrod’s young son, Agnar, had pity on him and brought him a horn of ale. Odin praised him and then went on to tell of the different divine abodes, of Yggdrasil, of creation, lastly reciting his various names and disclosing himself as Odin. When Geirrod heard this he ran to take him from the fire, but stumbled and fell on his sword. Odin now vanished. Agnar ruled long as king.
In V aft hr udnismal Odin desires to match his knowledge with that of the giant Vafthrudnir. Frigg would fain keep him at home, because Vafthrudnir is such a mighty giant. Odin pro¬ claims his intention of going to seek him, and now Frigg bids him a safe journey and trusts that his wit will avail him. He sets out and reaches the giant’s hall. Vafthrudnir says that he will never go forth again unless he proves himself wiser than the giant. Each questions the other, and the answers form a stock of mythological knowledge. In the end Odin, who has all through called himself Gagnrath and is unknown to the giant, asks him what words Odin spoke in the ear of Balder on his pyre. Now Vafthrudnir knows the god, and admits that he is the wiser. As the two had wagered their heads on the result of the contest, it is to be presumed that the giant, who speaks in the last verse of his £ fated mouth,’ now loses his head, though the poem does not say so.
In the N ornagests-thattry having taken the form of Gestum- blindi, £ Gest the blind,’ Odin enters King Heidrik’s hall at Yule, and propounds to him riddles, because the king is famous at guessing these. One of the riddles is: £ Who are the two that have ten feet, three eyes, and one tail? ’ The answer is: £ The one-eyed Odin, riding Sleipnir, his eight-legged steed.’ Heid- rik answered all the riddles, save that one which baffled Vafthrudnir: £ What did Odin speak into Balder’s ear before he was burned on the pyre? ’ By this Heidrik recognized Odin, and threw his magic sword Tyrfing at him, but he escaped as a falcon. Odin, however, was angry at Heidrik, and that night
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 63
he was slain by his slaves, or, according to a Faroese ballad- version of this story, Odin burned him in his hall.87
This high position ascribed to Odin, chiefly by the skalds and in Snorri’s Edda , is a later development of the personality and functions of the god, though traces of it are found elsewhere, as in the Lombard saga. Possibly some Christian influences may have affected the description of Odin’s might, as when he is called c All-father.’
We turn now to Odin’s descent and relationships. Snorri says that the mythic cow Audhumla gave origin out of an ice- block to Buri, fair of feature, mighty and great. His son was Borr, who married Bestla, daughter of the giant Bolthorn. To them were born Odin, Vili, and Ve. How Buri procreated Borr is not told. Giants are thus already in existence. Some of these personages are referred to in the poems: Borr’s sons in V olusp a ; c Borr’s heir ’ (Odin) in Hyndluljod; Bestla’s brother, son of Bolthorn, who taught Odin songs, in Havamald 8
Odin’s wife is Frigg, and in Lokasenna Loki reminds her of her amours with Vili and Ve — the only passage in the Poetic Edda where these two are mentioned. This incident is spoken of in the Y nglinga-saga. Odin’s brothers ruled the realm in his absence. Once, when he was away, the ^Esir thought that he would never return. So Vili and Ve shared his goods and his consort Frigg. Soon after Odin returned and took his wife once more.89 Whether Vili and Ve are shadowy reflections of Odin or actual deities alternating in cult with him — a view favoured by recent research — is not clear.
Two stories, relics of older myths, are given by Saxo. Frigg had offended Odin, and he went into exile. Now Mit-othin, famous for jugglery, seized the opportunity of feigning to be a god and led the people to worship him. He said that the wrath of the gods could never be expiated by mixed sacrifices, and he appointed to each of the gods his special drink-offering. After a time Odin returned, and Mit-othin fled to Finland, where the inhabitants slew him. All who approached his barrow died
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
64
and pestilence spread from his body, until it was taken out, beheaded and impaled in vampire fashion. Meanwhile the death of Odin’s wife revived the splendours of his name, and he forced all those who had misused his absence by usurp¬ ing divine honours to renounce them, and scattered the sorcerers.90
The other story is that after Odin’s amour with Rinda, the gods banished him and stripped him of honour, lest the wor¬ shippers should forsake them. Ollerus was put in his place and was called Odin. For ten years he was president of the divine court, until the gods pitied Odin’s exile and recalled him. Some judged that he was still unworthy: others said that he had bribed the gods. c If you ask how much he paid, enquire of those who have found out what is the price of a godhead,’ is Saxo’s comment. Ollerus was driven out, and retired to Sweden where the Danes slew him. He was said to be a wizard, who used a bone marked with spells to cross the sea. By it he passed over the waters as quickly as by rowing.91
Ollerus is the Ull of the Eddas. Mit-othin, or Mjotudr-inn, is connected with ON mjotudr , AS meotod , c fate ’ or c the power which metes out,’ and may mean c judge.’ Others ex¬ plain the name as c co-Odin ’ or £ contra-Odin,’ and as the latter he is regarded as Loki, for, like Loki, he is celiber praestigiis. The two stories may be variants of one myth, referring to the introduction of the new cult of Odin in certain regions of the North where another god had been supreme. There are reminiscences of a cult war. The rule of the earlier god, in the eyes of the upholders of the new cult, could only have been pos¬ sible by cunning and fraud. The theory of a prehistoric cult of alternating twin gods, who share a consort, succeeding each other in her possession, has also been suggested here. Such twin gods are held to be found in the two brother-gods called Alcis, mentioned by Tacitus as worshipped in a grove of the Nahanarvali, an East German tribe, and served by a priest in woman’s clothing.92 Possibly the myths point to Odin as a
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 65
god whose power waned in winter, when another god took his place, and also his consort.
By Frigg Odin had a son, Balder. Thor is said to be his son by Jord, £ Earth ’j Vali was his son by the giantess Rind. Hod, Bragi, Vidarr, and Heimdall are also called sons of Odin.93 Kings and chiefs traced descent from Odin, e.g., the Skjoldings from his son Skjold.94
Certain possessions are ascribed to Odin. His ravens Hu- ginn, £ Thought,’ and Muninn, £ Memory,’ sit on his shoulders and whisper to him all they see or hear. He sends them forth at day-break to fly about the world, and they return at evening with their budget of news. Hence Odin is Hrafna-god, £ Raven-god.’ These birds are also called his hawks. £ For Huginn I fear lest he return not home, but I am more anxious for Muninn,’ says Odin in Grimnismaly as if he feared they might not return from their flight.95 The ravens which haunt battle-fields were naturally connected with Odin as War-god, but there is also a suggestion in this raven myth of his superior knowledge, inasmuch as he understands the language of birds. The presence of two ravens flying past when Earl Hakon of¬ fered a great sacrifice was a sign to him that Odin had taken his offering and that he would have a happy day of fighting. Ravens are mentioned as Odin’s birds in the Havardar-saga: £ There is a flight of ravens, Odin’s messengers, on the left hand.’ Thus all ravens are the birds of Odin.96
Odin has two wolves, Geri, £ the Ravener,’ and Freki, £ the Glutton,’ to whom he gives his food, for wine is to him meat and drink. They are called his hounds.97 Wolves, like ravens, visiting battle-fields and eating the slain, were appropriate to a War-god and a god of the dead.
Sleipnir is Odin’s horse, born of Loki, grey, eight-legged, per¬ haps a symbol of speed. It is the £ best of all horses ’ among gods and men. On it Odin rides over land and sea, into Jotun- heim and down to Hel, as did Hermod when he went to seek Balder’s deliverance. On one occasion, Odin rode Sleipnir into
66
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
J otunheim and visited the giant Hrungnir, £ Blusterer.’ Hrung- nir asked who this might be, riding through air and water on such a good steed. Odin wagered his head that there was no such steed in Jotunheim. Hrungnir said that his horse, Gull- faxi, c Golden-mane,’ was better, and, growing angry, leaped on it and rode after Odin, who went so furiously that he was on the top of the next hill first. Hrungnir, overcome with giants’ frenzy, rode after him into Asgard where, in the sequel, he was dealt with by Thor.98
The spear Gungnir was made by dwarfs and given to Odin by Loki. He lent it to heroes. Against it all other weapons were useless, e.g., Sigmund’s sword. On Gungnir’s point and Sleipnir’s teeth, the head of Mimir bade runes to be written.99
Odin’s ring, Draupnir, c Dropper,’ made by the dwarf Sindri and given by his brother to Odin, was so called because eight rings of the same weight dropped from it every ninth night. Odin laid it on Balder’s pyre, and Balder sent it back to him from Hel as a token of remembrance. In Skirnismal the ring is Frey’s and is offered by Skirnir to Gerd as a means of inducing her to accept Frey’s love. Balder is also called c possessor of Draupnir.’ 100 If, as is thought, this ring is a symbol of fruitful¬ ness, it would naturally belong to Frey, the god of fruitfulness, afterwards passing into Odin’s possession.
Odin was still remembered in Christian times, and appears in different stories, as well as in folk-belief. Out of several tales in which he appears before Christian kings may be cited that of his coming to king Olaf Tryggvason, as he was keeping Easter. He appeared as an old man, one-eyed, of sombre aspect, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, and wise of speech. Olaf was entranced with his conversation, for he told him of all lands and all times. Hardly would the king go to bed, even when his bishop re¬ minded him of the lateness of the hour. When he was in bed, the stranger came and held further converse with him, until the bishop told Olaf that he must sleep. When he awoke, the
THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 67
guest was gone, but not before telling the cook that the meat which he was preparing was bad, and giving him two sides of an ox in its stead. Hearing this, the king ordered the meat to be burned and thrown into the sea, for the stranger could have been no other than Odin in whom the heathen had believed.101
CHAPTER V
THE GREATER GODS— THOR
THE name of the god Thor (ON Porr) of the Eddas oc¬ curs elsewhere in the following forms — OHG Donar, OS Thunaer, AS Thunor, and, in the speech of the Normans, Thur. These are from an earlier Thunaraz, and the root is connected with Indo-Germanic ( s) ten y Go boom,5 Go roar.5 Donar-Thor is thus the Loud-sounder, the Thunderer, the Thunder-god — the earliest aspect of this deity.
His widespread cult is attested by the equally widespread name of the fifth day of the week over the Teutonic area — OHG Donarestag or Toniristag; AS Thunoresdaeg; OE Thunresdaeg, hence Thursday j Swedish Thorsday, Danish Torsdag. The names were equivalents of the Roman Idles Jovis , and this suggests that Donar was regarded as the Teutonic Jupiter. In the early part of the eighth century S. Boniface found the Hessians at Geismar revering a huge sacred oak, robur Jovis , which he began to cut down, when the wind com¬ pleted his efforts.1 Boniface denounced the cult of such demons as Jupiter and spoke of Christian priests who sacrificed to Jupi¬ ter, feasting on the sacrifice.2 Jupiter is undoubtedly Thor. The Indiculus Sufierstitionum (eighth century) speaks of the Saxon sacra Jovis and jeriae Jovis , and Thunaer was one of the gods whom Saxons renounced at baptism.3 The eighth century Homilia de Sacrilegiisy probably written by a priest of the northern part of the Frankish kingdom, says that no work was done on the day of Jupiter, and earlier notices of this ritual idleness occur in Csesarius of Arles (fifth century) and Eligius of Troyes ( 58 8 to 659 a.d.), both referring to customs of the Germanic inhabitants of these regions.4 The German Peni-
.
; • jV ' n y
.
PLATE IX
Representations of Thor
The uppermost design, from the smaller golden horn, of a three-headed deity is held by some to repre¬ sent Thor with an axe and one of his goats.
The central design, of a god with an axe and a monster at his right hand, is supposed to represent Thor. From the decoration of a helmet found at Vendel in Sweden.
The two lowest designs are embossed bronze plates from the island of Oland, Sweden, representing Thor and a monster, and a god (Thor?) between two monsters.
\
IDE ir?!!ARY , OF THE
•• ■=» 4 . i -r. n . i a m
• n'-'S ....
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
69
tential bearing the names ‘ Corrector ’ and ‘ Medicus ’ which forms the nineteenth Book of the collection of decrees made by Burchard of Worms, c. 1000 a.d., and which was itself com¬ piled in the early tenth century, also speaks of the observance of the fifth day in honour of Jupiter.5
Saxo had difficulty in accepting the equivalence of Thor as Jupiter and Odin as Mercury, for this would make Jupiter son of Mercury, since Thor was Odin’s son. He concludes that, if Jupiter was father of Mercury, Thor could not be Jupiter nor Odin Mercury.6
The identification of Thor with Jupiter was apparently sub¬ sequent to his equivalence with Hercules as the interpretatio Romana. Tacitus places Hercules next to Mercury among the German tribes, and Hercules with his club is plainly the same as Thor with his hammer. Both were strong, both fought against evil powers. Hercules also occurs in inscriptions in Batavian territory — Hercules Magusanus, and in the lower Rhine region, where dedications to a Germanic Hercules occur. Magusanus, c the strong,’ from an old German magany c to be strong,’ is connected with the name of Thor’s son Magni, and corresponds to a Norse epithet of Thor’s, hln ramml , ‘the strong.’ A Hercules Deusoniensis, named on coins, is presumed to be a native German god, the name appearing in such place- names as Duisberg. Hercules Barbatus on Rhenish inscriptions is also Donar, whose beard is often mentioned in Norse liter¬ ature. Hercules Malliator, in an inscription at Obernburg, refers to Donar with his hammer.
Tacitus speaks of the Germanic Hercules and Mars being placated with the permissible animal victims. c They tell how Hercules appeared among them, and on the eve of battle they hymn the first of all brave men.’ Arminius convened the tribes in a wood sacred to Hercules — a cult-centre of the Cherusci and other tribes, east of the Weser.7
Donar-Thor, the Thunder-god, thus corresponds to Jupiter, in whose hands are thunder and lightning ; and, as the strongest
70
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
of the gods with his hammer, to Hercules, the strong hero with his club. If the Teutons known to the Romans told myths about Donar conquering giants and monsters, like the Norse Thor, the equivalence with Hercules is intelligible.
Apart from the occurrence of Donar’s name in that of the fifth day of the week, we find it on the Nordendorf brooch, dis¬ covered in Alemannic territory and belonging to the seventh century, joined with that of Odin in a runic inscription. The meaning of this seems to be that Thonar and Wodan are asked to consecrate a marriage. Donar the mighty is named in a twelfth century manuscript in a charm against epilepsy.8 The witness of mountain names in Germany is significant — Don- nersberg (Thoneresberg), Thuneresberg, and others, like the Thorsbiorg in Norway.9 Among the Anglo-Saxons the name Thunor does not occur in the royal genealogies as does that of Woden, but its frequent appearance in English place-names points to his cult.10
Saxo speaks of Thor among the Danes as a god £ to the great¬ ness of whose force nothing human or divine could fitly be com¬ pared.5 He, Odin, and many others, £ being once men skilled in magic, claimed the rank of gods, and ensnared the people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.5 11 For Thor’s cult and popu¬ larity in Sweden we have the witness of Adam of Bremen who equates Thor with the sceptre with Jupiter, and describes him as £ most powerful of the gods 5 there. He is £ ruler of the air, controls lightning and thunder, winds, rain-storms, fine weather and crops.5 Saxo also speaks of him as £ the great Thor 5 of Sweden.12 Above all, Norway was the region where the cult of Thor was most popular and long existent.
In Norway and in Iceland after its colonization, and to some extent in Sweden, Thor appears as the chief god, whose sov¬ ereignty Odin had taken. His cult was popular ; his images are often mentioned. Where his image stood beside those of other deities, it had the most prominent place or was most richly decked. At Throndhjem, in the chief temple, Thor sat in the
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
7i
midst as the most honourable, his image large and decked with gold and silver. He sat in his wagon, very magnificent, drawn by two goats carved in wood, with horns covered with silver. The whole was mounted on wheels.13 His image with his hammer was carved on the pillars of high-seats belonging to heads of families, or on the backs of chairs, or on the sterns of ships.14 Carved in bone, it was used as a protective amulet. Men carried his images with them, made of silver or ivory. Many temples of Thor existed in Norway and Iceland, and are mentioned in the Sagas and other writings. No other god had so many temples there as Thor.
Thor’s name was common in personal- and place- names in Scandinavia — Thordis, Thorkell, Thorgerd, Thorstein, and innumerable others, and the proportion is large compared with those of other deities, Odin’s name occurring seldom in Norse names. Among the Icelandic colonists of the ninth and tenth centuries names compounded of Thor are fifty-one as compared with three of Frey and none of Odin. On monuments with runes Thor is besought to consecrate these, and they sometimes have the form of his hammer.15 The Thing or assembly was opened on Thor’s day, in a place consecrated to Thor, showing that he was associated with law and justice. His superiority is seen in epithets bestowed upon him — asabragry £ first of the TCsir’; landdsy £ god of the country ’$ hofdingi allra goday £ chief of all gods ’ y mest tignadhry £ most honoured.’ He is £ Midgard’s warder £ the mighty one of the gods.’ At law- business oaths were taken with the words : £ so help me Frey and Nj ord and the almighty god,’ viz., Thor.16 It is significant that Odin’s name does not occur in this formula.
The reasons for Odin’s later supremacy have already been discussed. Thor’s supremacy, however, was never forgotten, and to the end he remained chief god to the peasants and yeo¬ men. The Icelandic colonists believed that they were under his protection and guided by him to their new abodes, which they called after him. The images of Thor and Frey are often
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
72
mentioned in Iceland: Odin’s but once. Apart from the king’s sacrifice to Odin, sacrifices were made only to Thor and Frey. Thor consecrates runes, not Odin; and the Thing met on his day, not Odin’s. The lines already cited from Harbardsljod show that the warrior aristocracy went to Odin at death, the folk to Thor, and the statement is significant of the relative position of the two gods at the time when the poem was com¬ posed (tenth century). The poem might be viewed as an at¬ tempt of its author to emphasize Odin’s greatness at the expense of Thor’s. While this is possible, yet the poem illustrates the lower aspects of Odin, his amours and magic, and it might equally be regarded as the comment of a mocking half-believer upon the gods. The poem is a contest of wits between Thor and Odin, disguised as a ferryman, Harbard. Thor appears as a peasant, with a basket on his back, coming back from a journey to the East. He asks Harbard to bring his boat over, but Harbard enquires what sort of peasant is this and twits him with his lowly position, not even possessing the usual peasant’s farm, barefoot, and in a peasant’s dress. What is his name? c I am Odin’s son, the strong one of the gods,’ Thor replies, and threatens Harbard for his mockery. The two then relate their adventures: each bidding the other tell what he was doing at the time. Thor’s adventures are the slaying of the giants Hrungnir and Thjazi, and of evil giant- women 3 his compelling the sons of Svarang to sue for peace ; his slaying the evil brides of the berserkers. Odin recounts his love-affairs and his causing of wars, and taunts Thor with cowardice, betraying troth, slay¬ ing women, and with Sif’s infidelity. Thor reproaches Har¬ bard with repaying good gifts with evil mind, calls him c womanish,’ utters foul speech against him, and threatens him with death if he could cross the water to him. Harbard still refuses to ferry him over, and adds that he never thought that Asa-Thor, Thor of the ^Esir, would be hindered by a ferryman. Finally he bids him take his way on foot and directs him how to go. Thor says that Harbard is speaking in mockery and then
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
73
the latter tells him to go hence where every evil thing will harm him.
Odin’s contempt for Thor in this poem mirrors the relation of the higher classes with their cult of Odin to the people outside the courtly and aristocratic circles to whom Thor was still the chief god.
Thor’s supremacy is attested in Lokasenna , for he alone of the gods can silence Loki. He saves the gods from the ven¬ geance of giants according to other myths, or, as the poet Thorbjorn sings: c Bravely fought Thor for Asgard and the followers of Odin.’ 17
The opposition between Thor and Odin appears in an episode of the life of the ideal Danish and Norse hero, Starkad. He had been nourished by Odin, called Hrosshars-grani, c Horse¬ hair-beard.’ Becoming one of king Vikar’s companions, he was with him when his fleet was stayed by a storm, and when the lots showed that Vikar himself must be sacrificed to Odin. That night Odin called Starkad and took him to a wood where, in a clearing, eleven men were sitting on as many seats. The twelfth seat was empty. Odin sat on it and was hailed by the others as Odin. The occasion had now come for Starkad’s fate to be pro¬ nounced. Thor said that as his mother had chosen a giant for his father instead of Thor, Starkad would have neither son nor daughter. Odin then said that he would live for three genera¬ tions. In each, Thor said, he would do a dastard’s deed. Odin announced that he would have the best of weapons and armour. Thor replied that he would have neither lands nor heritage. Odin promised him many possessions. Thor asserted that still he would always long for more. Odin promised him victory in every fight. Thor said that he would always receive terrible wounds. Odin announced that he would give him such a gift of poetry that verse would flow from his lips like common speech. Thor said that he would forget all his poems. Odin declared that the bravest and noblest would honour him; Thor said that the common people would hate him. These
74
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
different fates were endorsed by the others. Odin finally said that Starkad must repay him by slaying Vikar, and gave him instructions how to effect this, as has already been told.18
Thor appears in this story as opponent of the aristocratic warrior class dear to Odin, and of their ideals, turning every gift of Odin’s into a curse or neutralizing it, and thus acting the part of the third Norn in some tales.
In the Eddas Thor is regarded as son of Odin, but this could only have been a mythic convention resulting from Odin’s growing supremacy and the desire to bring all other deities into relation with him. This mythic relationship is asserted in the old English homily written by yElfric, who says that the Danes held Jupiter, whom they call Thor, to be son of Mercury, called by them Odin. This he regards as erroneous according to Roman mythology. Saxo, as has been seen, was also puzzled by the equation.
Thor’s mother is Jord, c Earth.’ His wife is Sif, c the fair¬ haired goddess,’ with hair like gold, who was accused by Loki and by Odin of unfaithfulness to him. Thor himself was not faithful to her. Their daughter is Thrud, ‘ might,’ promised by the gods to Alviss in Thor’s absence. Thor is sometimes described as c Thrud’s father hence she may be regarded as a personification of his might. He himself is Thrudugr, c the Mighty,’ and Thrudvald, c strong Protector his hammer is Thrudhamarr, c mighty Hammer ’3 his dwelling Thrudheim and Thrudvang, c Strength-home,’ c Strong field.’ The giant Hrungnir is called c thief of Thrud ’ in allusion to some unre¬ corded abduction of her.19
Thor’s sons are Magni (his mother Jarnsaxa) and Modi, who survive the Doom of the gods and inherit his hammer. They are personifications of his might (Magni) and wrath (Modi). When Magni was three days old he lifted the giant Hrungnir’s foot off Thor, a feat which none of the ^Eisir could do.20 Thor’s brother is Meili, of whom nothing is known. His
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
75’
servants are Thjalfi and Roskva, children of a husbandman, according to a story presently to be told.21 His relationship to Jord is seen in the epithet given to him, burr Jarthar , £son of Earth,5 in Eokasenna and T hrymskvitha.22
Thor5s names and epithets throw light on his character and functions. He is thrudvaldr go da , £ the strong one of the gods 5 $ veorr Mid gar ds , £ Warder of earth 5 3 vim verlidhay £ the Friend of man 5; Vingnir, £ the Hurler 5 ; Vingthor, £ Thor the Hurler 5 5 Hlorrithi, £ the Noisy one 5 ; orms ein-bani , £ Ser¬ pent’s destroyer ’j Thurs radbani , £ Giant-killer.5 These show him as the champion of the gods, the Thunder-god, the de¬ stroyer of obnoxious powers and beings, the helper of men. Though in origin a Thunder-god, he has other aspects, mostly of a beneficent kind, as summed up in Adam of Bremen’s ac¬ count, cited above. As Thunder-god his functions show that the thunder-storm was regarded in a beneficent aspect as fur¬ thering fertility. Sacrifices were made and prayers offered to Thor by the Swedes and Norsemen in times of famine and sick¬ ness, as Adam of Bremen and a passage in the Eiriks-saga show. Thorkill prayed to Thor, the red-bearded god, for food, and he sent a whale to the shore.23 Thor helped to make the ground arable, and protected men against rocks and cliffs.24 To sea-farers he was helpful, giving them favourable winds. The Norman Vikings offered him human victims before setting sail, and animal and food offerings were made to him by voy¬ agers to Iceland.25 Helgi the Thin asked him where he should land in Iceland, and he was advised to go to Eyjafjord. Helgi was a Christian, but was still so inclined to the old faith that he sought Thor’s help in all sea-faring and difficult journeys.26 Kraoko Hreidarr and his party sailed to Iceland, and he made vows to Thor in order that he should point out a site for his possession. Though the land to which he was directed be¬ longed to another, Kraoko maintained that Thor had sent him to it and intended him to settle there.27 Settlers in Iceland
u.
dedicated their land to Thor and called it by his name.28 Hence
76 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
the great number of place-names which bear witness to the cult of Thor.
Several accounts in the Sagas show how prominent this cult was in the lives of the Norse settlers in Iceland. Rolf, who was called Thorolf, had been guardian of Thor’s temple on the island of Most near the Norwegian coast. He was called ‘ a great friend ’ of Thor’s, and, when he quarrelled with king Harald, he made a great sacrifice and enquired of £ his beloved friend ’ Thor whether he should make peace with the king or leave Norway. The answer was that he should go to Iceland. He now took the temple to pieces and removed the timbers and earth from the spot where Thor’s image had rested. On draw¬ ing near Iceland, he threw overboard the pillars carved with Thor’s image, believing that by them he would be guided to a landing-place. They drifted ashore at a place afterwards called Thorsness, and there Thorolf landed and built a temple.29 Other examples of this use of pillars are given in the hand- nama-bok , as well as of taking down a temple before migrat¬ ing.39 The Kjalnesinga-saga tells of a great sacrificer called Thorgrim, grandson of Ingolf, the first settler in Iceland. He had a large temple to which all his men had to pay toll. He held Thor in highest honour, and in the temple his image was in the centre, with those of other deities on either hand.31 The dedication of sons to the service of Thor is also spoken of in the Sagas. Thorolf, himself dedicated to Thor, gave his son Stein to the god as Thorstein. His son in turn, Grim called Thorgrim, was also dedicated to Thor in order that he should be a temple-priest. The naming of lands or places or persons after Thor is prominent in stories of the settlement of Iceland.
Thor’s power over the winds and storms is also seen in the fact that he caused shipwreck to those who forsook their alle¬ giance to him by turning to Christianity. In the Njals-saga Thangbrand, a Christian, was asked by Steinvora, mother of Ref the skald, if he had heard that Thor challenged Christ to single combat and that He dared not accept the challenge. He
PLATE X
Thor and the Midgard-serpent
The upper design shows a sculptured capital from the church of Bocherville, Normandy, eleventh cen¬ tury, and is supposed to represent Thor attacking the Midgard-serpent.
The lower illustration of a sculpture of Scandinavian origin in the churchyard of Gosforth, Cumberland, shows Thor fishing with the giant Hymir (p. 85).
THE IP fiRY
'4*1 M *, »T , ■
CP
«-
— - - u - i
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
77
replied that he had heard that Thor was but dust and ashes, if God had not willed that he should live. Then she asked him if he knew how he had been shipwrecked, and told him that Thor had done this. £ Little good was Christ when Thor shat¬ tered ships to pieces. ... A storm roused by Thor dashed the bark to splinters small.’ 32 An Icelander named Thorgisl be¬ came a Christian, and in dreams was threatened by Thor if he did not return to his allegiance. The ship on which he was sail¬ ing encountered a great storm, caused by Thor. The god asked him in one dream to pay him what he had vowed to him. On awaking he recalled that this was a calf which was now an old ox. He threw it overboard, as this was the reason that Thor was haunting the ship.33
Thor’s aid was also sought in war. Styrbjorn prayed to him for victory over king Eirik, who prayed to Odin, and because he was mightier than Thor, Eirik was victorious.34
At banquets a cup of wine, consecrated by the sign of Thor’s hammer, was drunk to him. At a certain banquet Earl Sigund signed the first cup to Odin. King Hakon, a Christian, took it and signed it with the Cross, whereupon Sigund said that he was signing it to Thor with the hammer sign.35
Before discussing Thor’s possessions a passage from Snorri’s Ed da describing him may be quoted. c He is strongest of gods and men. His realm is in Thrudvang ; his hall is Bilskirnir, and in it are five hundred and forty rooms. That is the greatest house known to men.’ Here Snorri quotes a verse of Grimnis- mal in which Odin describes his son’s hall and says that it is the greatest of all houses, i.e., greater even than his own Valhall. The stanza is an interpolation, but it may be a reminiscence of Thor’s supreme place among the gods, and it is significant also that, in describing the various seats of the gods, Odin begins, not with his own, but with Thor’s. Snorri then speaks of Thor’s chariot and goats, and his three precious possessions — ham¬ mer, girdle, and iron gloves.36
Thor has two he-goats called Tanngnjost, £ Tooth -gnasher,’
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
78
and Tanngrisnir, c Tooth-gritter,’ and a chariot in which he drives, drawn by them. Hence he is called Oku-Thor, ‘ Wagon-Thor.’ Snorri also quotes the poet Kormak who said: c In his wagon Thor sitteth.’ The wagon is ‘ the car of Hrung- niris slayer,’ on which runes were bidden to be written by Mimir.37 In thunder-storms a god or supernatural being is often supposed to be on a journey through the sky, and this was true of Thor. A thunder-clap was reidar thrumay the rum¬ bling noise of chariot wheels. In Sweden the people said dur¬ ing thunder: godgubben dker ; go far akery c the good old fel¬ low ’ or c the gaffer drives.’ In Gothland thunder is Thors akany c Thor’s driving,’ and in Schleswig-Holstein the noise of thunder is attributed to the rumbling of a wagon through the air, i.e., Thor’s wagon. Hence his name Oku-Thor or such epithets as Valdi Kjola, c ruler of the wagon,’ Reidartyr, c god of the wagon,’ Vagna verr, ( wagon-man.’ 38 From the goats which drew the wagon Thor was called Hafra drottin, c lord of the goats.’ 39 One of the myths of Thor told by Snorri begins: c Oku-Thor drove out with his he-goats and his chariot,’ and in the Haustlong of Thjodolf of Hvin we see the goats driving the god in his wagon to fight with giants. Hail beats down, earth is rent, rocks shake, crags are shivered, the sky burns, as he rolls along — the description of a thunder-storm. T krymskvitha describes how the mountains were rent and earth burned with fire, as the goats drove Thor’s wagon to Jotunheim.40
Besides going in his wagon Thor is depicted walking, while other gods ride. Thus he walks to the daily Thing or perhaps to the final catastrophe, wading through many rivers according to an obscure passage in Grimnismald 1
c The hammer Mjollnir which is known to the Frost-giants and Hill-giants, when it is raised aloft; and little wonder, for it has smashed many a skull of their fathers or kinsfolk.’ This c mighty ’ or c murder-greedy ’ hammer was made by the dwarf Sindri and was deemed by the gods to be best of all precious works. It could be wielded by Thor only when he wore his
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
79
iron gloves. However hard he smote, it would not fail him: if he threw it, it would never miss nor fly so far as not to return to his hands. If he desired, it could become so small that he could keep it under his shirt. The only flaw in it was the short¬ ness of its haft.42 With his hammer Thor slew monsters and giants, and forced Loki to keep silence by threatening him with it. Thunder and lightning sometimes preceded its stroke.43 Hence it is most easily explained as the thunderbolt, which, in German superstition, was an essential part of the lightning-flash, and believed to be a black wedge which buried itself in the earth, but at each succeeding thunder-storm rose towards the surface, which it reached in seven years.44 Does this belief cor¬ respond to the statement that Thor’s hammer returned to his hand after being thrown? The superstition is echoed in T hrymskvitha in which the giant Thrym steals the hammer and buries it eight miles deep in the earth. In many regions flint weapons found in the earth are believed to be thunderbolts, and the myth of Thor’s hammer is doubtless connected with this belief. They are generally used as amulets or for magical purposes.
The hammer was a sacred symbol, and the sign of the ham¬ mer was used in consecrations and blessings. This custom is reflected in certain passages of the Eddas. The giant Thrym, believing the disguised Thor to be Freyja, the bride demanded by him, said:
c Bring now the hammer, to bless the bride,
Lay Mjollnir in the maiden’s bosom,
That our bond may be consecrated in Vor’s name.’ 45
(
Thor himself hallowed the hides and bones of his dead goats with his hammer, so that they lived again. With it he also hal¬ lowed Balder’s pyre. The sign of the hammer, as in Christian circles the sign of the Cross, was made over cups of liquor, espe¬ cially in sacrifices. As a divine symbol the hammer was used for many purposes. Sickness was healed by it, demons kept
8o
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
at a distance, marriages consecrated. According to Norse cus¬ tom, when a newly born child had been accepted by its father and so permitted to live, it was washed and signed with Thor’s hammer, i.e., a symbol of that mythic weapon, and thus received into the family.46 The hammer carved on a tombstone showed that the dead man was dedicated to Thor. Small hammers were used as amulets, and specimens of these have been found in Denmark and Sweden. c Thor’s hammers ’ were used by the island-men in their ancient faith, according to Saxo, who calls them malleos joviales. The men of old thought that thunder was caused by such hammers, and they apparently used them in thunder-storms. In c. 1123 a.d. Magnus Nicholasson the Dane spoiled Thor’s temple in Sweden of these tokens of the god’s, and the Swedes considered him guilty of sacrilege.47 All this points to the connexion of Thor’s hammer both with the mythic powers attributed to weapons and with the superstitious use of stone weapons regarded as supernatural. Thor’s ham¬ mer became the possession of Magni and Modi, his sons, in the renewed world.48
When Thor clasps his girdle around him c his divine strength is increased by half.’ In his iron gloves, his third precious possession, there is also much virtue.49
Thor is red-bearded, though whether this redness alludes to the fiery appearance of lightning, as Grimm supposed, is doubt¬ ful. He shakes his beard when roused ; when he speaks into it, every one quails. His anger is described by his bristling hair and tossing beard, or he lets his brows sink down below his eyes, so that whoso looks at him must fall down before his glance alone. Flame flashes from his eyes. When Thor met king Olaf at a time when Christianity was encroaching on his cult, ‘ he blew hard into his beard, and raised his beard’s voice,’ with the result that a storm arose.50 He is seen travelling on foot like a peasant, carrying a basket on his back — an appropriate appearance for a god of the peasants and the folk. He visits a peasant’s house for a night’s lodging, and from such a house
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
8 1
he took his servants Thjalfi and Roskva. Thjalfi, the swift- runner, is so swift that only Hugi or thought can beat him. Hence he may be a personification of lightning. Peasant-like, too, is Thor in his wordy flyting with Odin in Harbardsljod .51
At the Doom of the gods Thor fights with the Midgard- serpent, which he slays, but falls dead through its venom.52
Thor is often described as journeying to the East to fight giants or trolls. The Eddas contain several myths of these ex¬ peditions and combats. Indeed no other Eddie god has so many myths told of him as Thor. Several of his titles refer to his power over giants and monsters: c adversary and slayer of giants and troll-women/ c smiter of Hrungnir, of Geirrod, of Thri- valdi,’ c foe of the Midgard-serpent,’ ‘ hewer in sunder of the nine heads of Thrivaldi,’ £ merciless destroyer of giantesses.5 Hence also he is c the defender of Asgard and of Midgard.5 53 In his aspect as queller of giants, Thor, the Thunder-god, repre¬ sents the folk-belief that thunder is obnoxious to giants, trolls, and other demoniac beings.54
The myths in which Thor plays a part will now be given, beginning with that of the giant Hrungnir. After Odin’s visit to Hrungnir (p. 66), the giant pursued him into Asgard. The iEsir gave Hrungnir drink out of Thor’s flagons, and when drunk, the giant boasted that he would carry Valhall into Jotunheim and kill all the deities, save Sif and Freyja. Freyja alone dared pour ale for him, and now, as his insolence increased, the gods called for Thor. Thor, swinging his hammer, asked why Hrungnir was drinking here and who had given him safe- conduct, and, hearing from him that it was Odin, Thor said that he would repent of his presence there. Hrungnir protested that Thor would have no fame for killing a defenceless giant, and offered to fight him on the borders of Gr j otunagard. He then rode back to Jotunheim, and news of the duel was spread among the giants, who feared for themselves lest Thor should win. They made a giant of clay, nine miles high and three broad, and gave him a mare’s heart. Hrungnir had a stone
82
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
heart with three corners ; of stone also were his head and shield. His weapon was a whetstone. Beside him stood the clay giant, Mokkurkalfi, in great terror.
Thor and Thjalfi went to the meeting, and Thjalfi ran for¬ ward and advised the giant to stand on his shield for Thor would come up through the earth to him. This he did. Now arose thunder and lightnings, and Thor in divine fury ( dsmodi ), swung his hammer and cast it at Hrungnir, who meanwhile threw his whetstone. The weapons crashed together, and part of the whetstone fell to earth, forming all the whinstone rocks, part of it burst on Thor’s head, so that he fell forward. The hammer, however, broke Hrungnir’s head in pieces, and he fell with his foot on Thor’s neck. Thjalfi struck the clay giant down. He tried to raise Hrungnir’s foot from Thor’s neck, but could not, neither could any of the ASsir when they arrived. None could succeed but Magni, Thor’s three days’ old son by the giantess Jarnsaxa. c Sad it is,’ he said, c father, that I came so late, for I would have slain this giant with my fist, had I come sooner.’ Thor praised him and gave him Hrungnir’s horse, which Odin said should have been given to him.
The whetstone fragment remained in Thor’s head. The wise woman Groa, wife of Aurvandil the Valiant, sang spells over Thor until the stone was loosened. Thor told her how he had waded from the north over Elivagar, ‘ Icy Stream,’ bearing Aurvandil in a basket on his back from Jotunheim. As one of his toes stuck out of the basket, he broke it off and cast it up to the sky, where it is now the star called c Aurvandil’s toe.’ He also said that soon Aurvandil would be home, and in her joy Groa forgot her incantations, and the stone remained in Thor’s head. Hence a stone should not be cast across the floor, for the stone is then stirred in his head.55
A poem by Thjodolf of Hvin (tenth century) deals with this myth as depicted on a shield, and gives a vivid description of the rending of earth, the beating down of hail, and the shaking of the rocks, as Thor drives forth in his wagon to the fight.56
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
83
There are occasional references to the myth in the Eddie and other poems. Thor calls Mjollnir c Hrungnir’s slayer/ and he himself is c Hrungnir’s killer/ £ smiter of Hrungnir/ c skull- splitter of Hrungnir.’ The stone shield is c blade of Hrungnir’s foot-soles ’ according to a kenning, because the giant stood on it.57 The fullest reference is in Harbardsljod . Harbard said to Thor that he would await his attack and that since Hrungnir died no stouter opponent has faced him. Thor replied:
‘ Thou now remindest me How I with Hrungnir fought,
The insolent Jotun,
Whose head was all of stone;
Yet I made him fall,
And sink before me.’ 68
While the foundation of this myth may be the effect of a thunder-storm in the mountains, the further modern interpreta¬ tions of details in it can only be regarded as highly problem¬ atical. The story of the part of the whetstone which stuck in Thor’s head is possibly an setiological myth originating as an explanation of images of the god Thor which, as among the Lapps, had an iron nail with a piece of flint stuck in the head, c as if Thor should strike out fire.’ The purpose of this iron and flint was probably to produce the sacrificial fire. On the high- seat pillars of the Norsemen the image of Thor was carved and in the head was set the reginnagli. In earlier times flint may have been used instead of iron in these images.59
Aurvandil, c the Sea-wanderer/ is the hero Orendil still sung in an epic of the twelfth century, and possibly the Horvendil- lus of Saxo, father of Amleth (Hamlet). The constellation Earendel was also known to the Anglo-Saxons.60 This constel¬ lation is thought to be Orion.
Another giant adventure of Thor’s is that in Geirrod’s land, related by Snorri. Loki, flying in Frigg’s hawk-plumage, went to Geirrod’s court where he was shut up in a chest for three months. In order to get free, he told Geirrod that he would
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
84
induce Thor to come there without his hammer or girdle. Thor, having been persuaded, went off with Loki and spent the night with the giantess Grid, mother of Vidarr, who told him of Geirrod’s craft and lent him a pair of iron gloves, a girdle of might, and a staff called ( Grid’s staff ’ ( Gridar voir). By aid of the staff Thor crossed Vimur, greatest of rivers, Loki holding on to the girdle of might. When they were in mid-stream Gjalp, daughter of Geirrod, caused the waters to increase. Thor sang: c Swell not, O Vimur, I must wade through thee to the giants’ garth. If thou swellest, so will swell my divine strength in me up to Heaven.’ Going forward he saw how Gjalp caused the swelling of the stream, and caused her to retire by throwing a stone at her. Then taking hold of a rowan-tree on the bank, he pulled himself out: hence the rowan is called £ Thor’s de¬ liverance.’ Reaching Geirrod’s court, Thor was given a seat which moved under him to the roof. Thrusting his staff against the rafters, he pushed back the chair, which now crashed on Gjalp and her sister Greip, breaking their backs. Geirrod called him to play games in a hall where great fires burned, and taking with the tongs a white hot iron bar from the fire, he threw it at Thor, who caught it with his iron gloves. Seeing him about to throw it at him, Geirrod leaped behind an iron pillar, through which the bar passed, as well as through Geirrod and the wall into the earth.61
This myth is the subject of a poem by Eilif Gudrunarson ( c . 976 a.d.), in which, not Loki, but Thjalfi accompanies Thor.62 Saxo Grammaticus, in his account of King Gorm’s visit to the land of Geruthus (Geirrod), refers to the hurt done by Thor to him and his daughters, here three in number. Geir¬ rod’s land is full of treasure. The way to it across the ocean is beset with peril. Sun and stars are left behind and the jour¬ ney is taken down to chaos, to a land of darkness and horror, and here the story is probably coloured by visions of Hell. c Long ago the god Thor had been provoked by the insolence of the giants to drive red-hot irons through the vitals of
PLATE XI
Thor’s Hammer Amulets
The upper, of silver, from Uppland, Sweden. The lower, of silver decorated with gold and filigree work, is from East Gotland, Sweden.
)
m LI3S&8Y if TIE
I* t* *n y * j ”* ’*• • ■» ) •• • *« « 'i *! i
- 4 '» <* .. _ _ j — - - ■
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
85
Geirrod, who strove with him. The iron slid farther, tore up the mountain, and battered through its side. The women were stricken by the might of his thunderbolts, and were punished for their attempt on Thor, by having their backs broken.’ 63
The myth of Hymir is told by Snorri and also in the Eddie poem Hymiskvitha. Snorri says that Thor went from Mid- gard on foot and in haste disguised as a youth, and arrived at the giant Hymir’s abode. Next morning he wished to aid Hymir in fishing, but Hymir said he was so small that he would freeze. Thor’s anger was great, but he restrained himself from attacking Hymir, as he had another purpose to fulfil. To obtain bait he struck off the head of Hymir’s largest ox, Him- inbr j ot. He aided Hymir in rowing to the usual fishing-banks, and beyond them, in spite of the giant’s fear of the Midgard- serpent. Thor prepared a strong line with a large hook, on which he fixed the ox’s head. Then he cast it overboard, in¬ tending to beguile the Midgard-serpent. The monster snapped at the bait and was caught by the hook, dashing off so quickly that Thor’s fists crashed against the gunwale. Thor’s divine anger came upon him: he braced his feet so firmly that they dashed through the planking and struck the bottom of the ship. Then he drew the serpent up, flashing fiery glances at it, while it glared at him and blew venom. The giant was in terror and, while Thor clutched his hammer, he fumbled for his knife and hacked the line, so that the serpent fell back into the sea. Thor hurled his hammer after it, and c men say that he struck off its head,’ but c I think it were true to tell thee that the serpent still lives and lies in the encompassing sea.’ Then Thor struck Hymir with his fist and sent him overboard, and he himself waded ashore.64
Snorri makes this adventure one taken in revenge for Thor’s outwitting by Utgard-Loki, of which we shall hear presently. The Hymiskvitha gives a somewhat different version of the myth, showing that Snorri must have used other sources, and
86
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
it is the subject of several poems, verses of which are quoted by him in Skaldskaparmal .65
The Hymiskvitha , which is based on earlier lays, consists of three incidents — the obtaining of a kettle for the gods’ ban¬ quet, the Hymir story, and the tale of Thor’s goats. The third has no real connexion with the rest of the poem, the two incidents of which are much more welded together.
The gods were feasting and not satisfied, so they used divining-twigs to discover where more drink could be obtained. They learned that there was plenty in the hall of the giant or sea-god ^Egir, and to him they went, bidding him prepare a feast for them. The giant sought revenge and bade Thor bring a kettle in which to brew ale. The gods did not know where to seek it, until Tyr, who here calls Hymir his father, said that Hymir had a mighty kettle, a mile deep. Thor and Tyr set out to the east of Elivagar at the end of Heaven, where Hymir dwelt, first going to Egil’s house, where Thor left his goats. At Hymir’s abode Tyr found his grandmother, who had nine hundred heads, and his bright-browed mother, who brought them ale. She hid them beneath the kettle, for Hymir was often hostile to guests. Late returned the giant from hunting, icicles rattling on his beard. His wife told him that Thor and their son Tyr, long waited for, had come, and were sitting under the gable, behind the beam. The giant looked at the gable: it gave way and eight kettles fell, of which all but one — that under which the gods were hiding — broke. The giant saw them, and, though enraged, could not forget the duty of hospitality. Three oxen were slaughtered and their flesh boiled: of these Thor ate two, to Hymir’s amazement. The poem now passes suddenly to the fishing incident. Hymir bids Thor go and get bait from the oxen. On this expedition Hymir caught two whales, while Thor was still preparing his hook with great cunning. Having cast it he drew up the serpent, and struck at its c hill of hair ’ (head) with his hammer, and it sank into the sea.
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
87
Thor and Hymir returned to the giant’s house. Hymir would reckon no one strong who could not break his glass cup. Thor struck the stone pillars with it: they broke, but not the cup. Now Hymir’s wife told Thor to strike the giant’s head with the cup, for that was harder than the glass. Hymir be¬ wailed his treasure, and said that now they might take the kettle if they could move it. Tyr tried in vain: Thor raised it to his head and set off. The giant with other many-headed ones out of caves pursued. Thor put down the kettle, swung his hammer and slew the giants. Thus the kettle was brought to the gods. After the killing of the giants, one of Thor’s goats was found with its leg hurt — this evil Loki had done. Nothing further is said of this in the poem, and the goat incident is told by Snorri in another connexion.
This lay consists mainly of a widespread folk-tale, to which the episode of the Midgard-serpent has been attached, unlike the prose account. Heroes come to a giant’s abode to seek some coveted possession. In the adventure they are aided by the giant’s wife or daughter, and so overcome him and obtain the de¬ sired object. Thor and Tyr are here made the heroes of the tale. The cup is suggestive of the giant’s Life-token, containing his soul, but contrary to usual custom, though it is broken, the giant does not immediately die. Such folk-tales usually tell how the pursuers are stopped by transformed objects thrown down by the pursued. This is lacking in the lay. That the kettle signifies the sea, frozen in winter, i.e., in the power of the Frost-giant, and freed by the first thunder-storm in spring, seems a forced and unnatural explanation of the tale.66 A gigantic vessel would rather be the rock basin or shores contain¬ ing the sea, not the sea itself.
The adventure with the Midgard-serpent prefigures the coming time when, at the Doom of the gods, Thor will have to engage with it. But this adventure may have given rise to the conception of that final combat with the monster. The sugges¬ tion of both prose and poetic narrative is that the serpent is slain
88
EDDIC MYTHOLOGY
or receives a severe wound. The poem called BragPs Shield- lay and the Husdrdpa both describe the adventure, and in the latter Thor struck the serpent a deadly blow and smote off its head as it rose from the sea.6'
One of the finest Eddie poems, T hrymskvitha or £ Lay of Thrym,’ composed about 900 a.d., has, as its subject, the recov¬ ery of Thor’s hammer from the giant Thrym, who had stolen it. Ving-Thor awoke to find his hammer missing. Great was his rage — hair bristling, beard shaking — as he sought it. Loki was told of his loss, and together they sought Freyja and bor¬ rowed her feather-dress. In this Loki flew to Jotunheim (as he had flown to Geirrod’s realm), where Thrym, lord of the giants, sat on a mound, making golden leashes for his dogs and stroking the manes of his steeds. £ How fares it with gods and elves: why comest thou alone to Jotunheim? ’ he cried to Loki. £ Ill fares it with gods and elves,’ replied Loki, £ hast thou hid¬ den Hlorrithi’s hammer? ’ Thrym said it was hidden eight miles deep: none would win it back, unless Freyja was given him as a bride. Back flew Loki to Thor with the tidings, and again they sought Freyja, Loki bidding her bind on the bridal veil and haste to Jotunheim with him. So great was Freyja’s anger that the gods’ dwelling was shaken and her necklace, Brisinga-men, broke. The gods met in council. How was the hammer to be recovered? Heimdall advised that Thor, dis¬ guised as Freyja, should go to Thrym. Thor refused such un¬ manly conduct, but Loki bade him be silent, for if the advice were not followed, and he did not recover his hammer, the giants would soon dwell in Asgard — a significant statement.
So the bridal-veil was put on Thor, with a woman’s dress, keys at her girdle, a woman’s head-gear, and the necklace and other gems. Loki attended him as a maidservant, and in the goats’ chariot they sped to Jotunheim, while the mountains burst and blazed with fire. Thrym bade a great feast to be prepared. To his amazement Thor ate an ox, eight salmon, and all the dainties provided for the women, and drank three huge vessels
THE GREATER GODS — THOR
89
of mead. Loki said that the bride had been fasting for eight nights, in her longing for Jotunheim. Thrym, eager to kiss the bride, lifted her veil, but at sight of the fiery eyes, leaped back the length of the hall. Loki explained that for eight nights the bride had not slept, in her longing for Jotunheim. Now came the giant’s sister, asking the bridal fee — rings of gold from the bride’s hand, if she would gain her love and favour. Then Thrym commanded that the hammer be brought to hal¬ low the bride, and placed on her knees, that the hand of Vor, goddess of vows, might bless them both. Thor laughed in¬ wardly and, seizing the hammer, slew Thrym and all the giants and his sister.
Some dualistic conceptions may lie behind this myth. The giant wishes to gain the power of the gods, and steals its symbol and medium, the hammer Mjollnir. But what precisely the giant represents, whether a primitive thunder-deity or demon or the force of winter, is problematical. Thor, whose strength is quiescent apart from his hammer, may represent here a nature god whose power wanes in winter, but waxes in spring. If this is the mythic foundation, the story is built upon it without itself having any significance in nature phenomena. It is well told, with much humour, and Thor excellently sustains the part of the bride. The story is remembered in Norse folk-tales.68
Here, there is a quest by Thor for his own property, as in Hymiskvitha for that of another, in Jotunheim. In both tales he eats in a gluttonish manner, and in both he ends by slaying